The distribution, behaviours, and composition of dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus) nursery groups off Kaikoura, New Zealand, were examined. Data were collected during January–May 2005 and December 2005–April 2006 by systematic boat based surveys, group focal follows and photo-identification techniques. A total of 99 nursery groups were encountered on survey. Nursery groups were encountered in shallow water (<20 m) significantly more often than in deeper water (>20 m). Other group types (large groups, mating groups, adult non-mating groups) were not found in shallow water significantly more often than in deeper water. By staying in the shallower water, nursery groups may be protected from aggressive conspecifics and predators. More boats, especially private recreational boats, were found in the shallower waters, indicating that nursery groups are at greater risk from encounters with boat motors or recreational fishing gear in such areas. Group focal follows of at least 30- minutes were conducted on 56 nursery groups. Calves engaged in significantly more high energy behaviours (displays and head first re-entries) than non-calves in nursery groups. These groups were predominantly resting and compactly organized (interanimal distance less than 1 adult body length). Nursery groups showed a high level of synchrony, with 44% of groups synchronizing their submergence and surfacings for most of the focal follow. Median group size was 14, with a minimum of 2 mother-calf pairs to a maximum of 50 mother-calf pairs. A total of 260 individuals were catalogued as members of nursery groups during the two field seasons. Of these, 112 individuals were seen in nursery groups on at least two different days. Some individuals photographed with young calves in nursery groups off Kaikoura were later photographed in Admiralty Bay, 275 km northwest of Kaikoura. Other individuals photographed together in nursery groups in 2005 were also together in nursery groups in 2006.

Das Ziel der Untersuchungen bestand darin, die Auswirkungen verschiedener Kälberaufzuchtverfahren, die sich hinsichtlich des Faktors 'Anwesenheit der Mutter' unterschieden, auf die Entwicklung des Sozialverhaltens in der Ontogenese zu bestimmen. Mit den Ergebnissen dieser Untersuchungen sollen die tierseitigen Anforderungen der Kälber an die Haltungssysteme in Hinblick auf die soziale Umwelt deutlicher formuliert werden. Von Mai 1994 bis zum Oktober 1996 wurden zwei Rindergruppen der Rassenkreuzung Schwarzbuntes Milchrind (SMR) x Salers von der Geburt an bis zur Phase der eigenen Reproduktion beobachtet. Gegenstand der Untersuchungen war die ethologische Analyse verschiedener Verhaltensweisen, vor allem des Sozialverhaltens. Die Saugkälber hatten in den ersten acht Lebensmonaten vorwiegend Sozialkontakte mit ihren Müttern, weniger mit den gleichaltrigen Gruppenmitgliedern. Spielerische Kontakte zwischen den Kälbern bezogen sich meist auf Bewegungsspiele und spielerisches Hornen. Rangauseinandersetzungen fanden erst nach dem Absetzen statt. Die Tränkkälber hatten insgesamt weniger Kontakte untereinander, beleckten sich allerdings häufiger. Rangauseinandersetzungen fanden bereits ab dem dritten Lebensmonat statt und führten zur Bildung einer vorläufigen Rangfolge, die von den ältesten und schwersten Tieren dominiert wurde. Gegenseitiges Besaugen wurde oft beobachtet. Es trat sehr häufig während der Haltung am Tränkautomaten auf und konnte bis zum 22. Lebensmonat beobachtet werden. Die Anzahl der Sozialkontakte zu gleichaltrigen Tieren war in der Jungrind- Phase in beiden Gruppen weitgehend gleich. In der Jungkuh- Phase hatten die Jungkühe (S) untereinander signifikant mehr soziale Kontakte, knüpften zu ihren Nachkommen mehr Kontakte und verbrachten auch signifikant mehr Zeit gemeinsam mit ihnen als die Jungkühe (T). Verhaltensrhythmisch traten über den Lichttag hinweg während des gesamten Untersuchungszeitraumes Unterschiede zwischen den Gruppen auf. Zwar glichen sich beide Gruppen in ihrem Tagesrhythmus mit zunehmendem Alter an, aber nicht vollständig. Unterschiede gab es auch bei den Tagessummen für das Fressen, Liegen und Stehen. Schlußfolgernd zeigt sich, daß eine Aufzucht in altersstrukturierten Gruppen wichtige kalb- und kuhseitige Sozialbedürfnisse erfüllt und die sozialen Potenzen adulter Gruppenmitglieder in die Aufzucht einbezieht. Den Jungtieren werden somit Lernprozesse ermöglicht, die von langfristiger Bedeutung sind und sich bei der Aufzucht ihrer eigenen Nachkommen positiv auswirken. Die Umsetzung dieses Grundprinzips im Zuge der Weiterentwicklung der Aufzuchtverfahren kann deren biologische Qualität deutlich verbessern und gestaltet die Erfüllung wesentlicher Anforderungen einer art- und altersgerechten Kälberhaltung. / The aim of the investigation was to determine effects of different calf-rearing conditions with regard to the factor of the presence of the dam on the development of the social behavior during the ontogeny. The results of these investigations should express the animal requirements of the calves to the different keeping systems in view of the social environment. The study was carried out in the time between April 1994 and October 1996, until the age of their own reproduction. Two groups of female calves , containing 11 animals (suckling calves) and 10 animals (watering calves) were observed. The first group was raised by dams (suckling calves). The second one was raised without any contacts to the dams (watering calves). Suckling calves exhibited social contacts preferably to their own mother rather than to the other calves of the group. In most cases the contacts between the calves consisted of play runnings and horning. These calves established the rank order after weaning, i. e. after the ninth month. In the time before weaning the social interactions of the suckling calves exceeded those of the watering calves. Mutual suckling behaviour took place only in the group of the watering calves. Social rank order disputes among calves of the automatically fed group already started in their fourth month. The establishment of ranks was principally determined by age and weight. Mutual suckling behaviour were often observed. It was very often during the time as they were fed by the automatic liquid feeder and it was observed till the 22nd month. The number of social contacts to peers of calves in the age between the 9th and 23rd month was nearly the same. Those mothers that had been raised as suckling calves had more interactions with their own offspring and spent more time with them in comparison to the automatically fed group. The rhythm of behavior of the observation (lightly) day was different between the groups over the full observation period. At the end of the observations in October 1996 the rhythm of behaviour was nearly the same, but not for all specifics. Also, there were differences in the daily sums of feeding, laying and standing. The rearing of calves in groups with their dams fulfills the special social needs of cows and calves. The social potencies of adults improve the rearing of the calves. The young's get the possibility to learn from the adults. This possibility is very important and has a positive influence for rearing of their own offspring. This basic principal is important for the development of rearing methods, for a better biological quality and fulfills the specific requirements of calf-rearing.