Os receptores nicotínicos de acetilcolina (colinérgicos) (nAChRs) neuronais são proteínas integrais de membrana e pertencem à família de canais iônicos controlados por ligante, compostos por subunidades α e β. Esses receptores desempenham um papel-chave na transmissão de sinal entre os neurônios nos sistemas nervoso central e periférico. O subtipo α3β4, por exemplo, é o nAChR neuronal mais expresso no sistema nervoso autônomo; nAChRs contendo a subunidade α3 estão presentes em alta densidade no gânglio cervical superior, glândulas pineal e adrenais. Também estão presentes na substancia nigra, striatum, hipocampo, locus ceruleus, tracto habênulo-interpeduncular e cerebelo. Os nAChRs são inibidos por uma variedade de substâncias químicas, incluindo toxinas naturais, anestésicos locais, drogas de abuso (por, exemplo, cocaína) e compostos clinicamente importantes (tranqüilizantes, por exemplo). O mecanismo de inibição desses receptores tem sido investigado intensivamente. Neste estudo, nós investigamos o mecanismo pelo qual a tacrina (9-1,2,3,4-tetraidroaminoacridina), um agente usado clinicamente no tratamento da doença de Alzheimer, inibe o nAChR α3β4 de rato recombinante expresso nas células KXα3β4R2, utilizando uma técnica de cinética química rápida. A constante de dissociação da nicotina do sítio que controla a ativação do receptor, Kd, é 23 µM e a constante de equilíbrio de abertura do canal, Φ-1, é 4. A tacrina inibe o receptor competitivamente, com um KI de 0,77 µM. / Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine (cholinergic) receptors (nAChRs) are integral membrane proteins and belong to the family of ligand-gated cation channels composed by α and β subunits. These receptors play a key role in the signal transmission between neurons in the central and peripheral nervous system. The α3β4 subtype, for example, is the most expressed neuronal nAChR in autonomic ganglia; α3-containing nAChRs are present at particularly high density in the superior cervical ganglia, pineal, and adrenal glands. They are also present in the substancia nigra, striatum, hippocampus, locus ceruleus, habenulo-interpeduncular tract and cerebellum. The nAChRs are inhibited by a variety of chemical substances, including natural toxins, local anesthetics, abused drugs (e.g., cocaine) and clinically important compounds (e.g., tranquilizers). The mechanism of inhibition of these receptors has been intensively investigated. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which tacrine (9-1,2,3,4-tetahydroaminoacridine), an agent used clinically to treat Alzheimers disease, inhibits the recombinant rat α3β4 nAChR expressed in KXα3β4R2 cells, using a rapid chemical kinetic technique. The nicotine dissociation constant for the site controlling receptor activation, Kd, is 23 µM and the channel-opening equilibrium constant, Φ-1, is 4. Tacrine inhibits the receptor competitively, with a KI of 0.77 µM.

Neste trabalho foi estudada a reação de transesterificação em fase líquida entre etanoato de 2-etoxietila (CAS 111-15-9) e 2-butoxietanol (CAS 111-76-2), catalisada com óxido de nióbio, para obtenção do etanoato de 2-butoxietila (CAS 112-07-2). Aplicando-se a técnica de planejamento de experimentos (Design of Experiments, DOE), foram avaliados os efeitos de temperatura, catálise, agitação e composição inicial no resultado de conversão do reagente limitante. Foi identificada a forte influência da razão molar inicial de reagentes na velocidade de reação, além das influências também significativas da temperatura e % de catalisador. O melhor resultado de conversão foi de 76,1 % do reagente limitante, obtido para a temperatura de 130°C, 20 % de catalisador e razão molar de 6 mols de etanoato de 2-etoxietila para 1 mol de 2-butoxietanol, ao final de 5 horas de reação. O modelo cinético pseudo-homogêneo de segunda ordem foi utilizado para descrever a velocidade da reação no intervalo de reação de 110 a 130°C. As constantes cinéticas e de equilíbrio foram calculadas a partir das concentrações molares e atividades dos componentes da mistura reacional. As velocidades de reação no intervalo de temperatura estudado são mais baixas em relação às outras reações de transesterificação. As constantes de equilíbrio de reação obtidas para o intervalo de temperatura estudado são próximas do valor unitário, estando de acordo com o que a literatura relata para reações reversíveis de 2° ordem. O modelo pseudohomogêneo ajustou-se bem aos resultados de conversão. O catalisador (óxido de nióbio) apresentou alta seletividade. Para o cálculo das atividades utilizadas na obtenção da constante cinética de reação, foram realizados ensaios de equilíbrio líquido-vapor para estimativa dos parâmetros do modelo de atividade NRTL (Nonrandom, two-liquid). Os resultados dos ensaios de equilíbrio líquido-vapor mostraram pequenos desvios de idealidade para as seis misturas binárias estudadas. O modelo de atividade e seus parâmetros estimados mostraram bom ajuste dos resultados experimentais. / In this work, the transesterification reaction in liquid phase between 2-etoxyethyl acetate (CAS 111-15-9) and 2-butoxyethanol (CAS 111-76-2) to obtain the 2- butoxyethyl acetate (CAS 112-07-2) catalyzed by niobium oxide was studied. The effects of temperature, catalysis, agitation and initial composition on the result of conversion for limiting reagent were evaluated applying the technique of Design of Experiments (DOE). The strong influence of the initial molar ratio of reactants and also significant influences of temperature and % catalyst in reaction rate were indentified. The best result of conversion of limiting reagent was 76.1%, obtained for the 130°C, 20% catalyst and the molar ratio of 6 moles of 2-etoxyethyl acetate to 1 mol of 2-butoxyethanol, at the end 5 hours of reaction. The second order pseudohomogeneous kinetic model was used to describe the reaction rate in the range 110- 130°C. The kinetic and equilibrium constants were calculated from the molar concentrations and activities of the mixtures components. The reaction rates in the temperature range studied are lower when compared to other transesterification reactions. The reaction equilibrium constants obtained for the temperature range studied are close to the unit value, which is consistent with literature reports for the reversible reactions of 2nd order. The pseudo-homogeneous model fitted well the results of conversion. The catalyst (niobium oxide) showed high selectivity. Vaporliquid equilibrium assays were performed to estimate parameters of the NRTL (nonrandom, two-liquid) activity model for the calculation of components activities used to obtain the kinetic constant of reaction. The kinetic models proposed showed a good fit of the experimental data. The results of vapor-liquid equilibrium assays showed small deviations from ideality for the six binary mixtures evaluated. The activity model and its estimated parameters showed good fit of the experimental results.

La stabilité des carburants en phase liquide est de premier ordre dans le domaine du transport. Par exemple, les carburants, les lubrifiants ou les additifs doivent être stables de leur production jusqu'à leur utilisation. Cette thèse a pour but de développer et de valider une méthodologie alliant l’acquisition de données expérimentales et le développement de modèles cinétiques pour l'autoxydation en phase liquide.Expérimentalement, une approche complémentaire a été mise en place pour obtenir à la fois des données de réactivité globales via un appareil PetroOxy et des profils d’espèces via un autoclave instrumenté.Numériquement, une méthodologie basée sur un générateur de mécanismes est proposée pour obtenir une chimie détaillée en phase liquide. Les paraffines linéaires et branchées sont étudiées comme des carburants modèles représentatifs de l'autoxidation de carburants réels afin de valider l’approche proposée. Ces familles chimiques sont représentatives de la composition des carburants réels et alternatifs.La réactivité des n-paraffines de C8 à C16 ainsi que d’isomères de l’octane a été étudiée en PetroOxy sur la gamme de température 373-433 K. Puis, des profils d’espèces détaillés de la phase gaz et de la phase liquide ont été obtenus durant l’étude de l’oxydation du n-C8 et du 2-methylheptane dans un autoclave à 383 K et 10 bars. Des mécanismes cinétiques détaillés ont été développé pour toutes les molécules jusqu’à C14. Les mécanismes reproduisent qualitativement la formation des espèces majoritaires lors de l’autoxidation des alcanes ainsi que les tendances observées liées à la longueur de chaîne et la ramification. L’analyse des mécanismes cinétiques a mis en avant le rôle prédominant des radicaux peroxy (ROO) et peroxy-hydroperoxyde (HOOQOO) dans la consommation de carburants modèles.Cette étude a permis d’améliorer la compréhension des processus d’autoxidation des alcanes linéaires et branchés. L’étude de nouveaux systèmes permettra d’améliorer la compréhension globale des processus d’autoxidation et, de réduire l’écart de compréhension existant entre l’autoxidation des carburants réels et des carburants modèles. / Liquid phase stability is a major concern in the transportation and the energy fields. Relevant examples are fuels, lubricants and additives which have to be stable from their production to their application (engine, combustors). This thesis aims to develop and validate a complete methodology combining both experimental data acquisition and the development of kinetic models for liquid phase autoxidation.The experimental methodology is based on a complementary approach to obtain (i) a global reactivity descriptor (Induction Periods) and (ii) detailed species profiles respectively using a PetroOxy device and an instrumented autoclave. Numerically, the presented methodology includes detailed liquid phase mechanisms generation with an automatic mechanism generator (RMG). Normal and iso-paraffins were selected as fuel surrogates for autoxidation to validate the developed methodology. They were selected regarding their large contribution in fuel composition and their growing interest as drop-in fuels.The reactivity of both n-paraffins from C8 to C16 and several C8 iso-paraffins was investigated over a wide temperature range (373-433 K) in the PetroOxy with liquid phase analyses. Then, detailed species profiles from the autoxidation of both n-octane and 2-methylheptane in autoclave were obtained at 383 K and 10 bars. Detailed liquid phase mechanisms were developed for all molecules tested up to C14. Mechanisms qualitatively reproduce the overall phenomenology of the chain length, the branching and the major species profiles observed experimentally. Mechanisms analysis allow to identify the main consumption pathways of alkanes through peroxy (ROO) and peroxy-hydroperoxide radicals (HOOQOO) over the temperature range investigated (373-473 K).This study permitted to increase the comprehension of autoxidation processes involved in normal and branched alkanes. The study of new chemical systems will increase the global comprehension of autoxidation processes and in fine it will reduce the gap between the current autoxidation knowledge and the real fuel autoxidation.

À ses débuts, la conquête spatiale a pu bénéficier des rivalités politiques de la Guerre Froide pour se développer rapidement sans réellement se soucier des efforts économiques à fournir. Aujourd’hui, de nombreux pays subissent le revers de la médaille de cette course effrénée : pour maintenir une flotte de lanceurs viable économiquement, les différentes agences spatiales doivent faire face à un dilemme opposant la minimisation des coûts de lancement à la maximisation de leur fiabilité. Dans cette logique d’optimisation, les industriels présents dans ce processus de réflexion se tournent vers la simulation numérique pour tenter d’améliorer leurs connaissances des technologies existantes, en particulier sur les zones d’ombres inaccessibles aux mesures expérimentales. Dans la lignée de plusieurs études théoriques et expérimentales, ces travaux visent à apporter un éclairage nouveau sur les phénomènes se produisant lors de l’allumage d’un moteur fusée cryotechnique. Ces recherches se tournent dans un premier temps vers l’amélioration de la modélisation de la flamme H2/O2. La validation d’une cinétique chimique réduite initialement destinée à la combustion H2/Air permet de justifier son utilisation lors de l’allumage. Puis, le développement d’un modèle de combustion turbulente pour le régime de flamme de diffusion est mené dans le but de palier aux limitations du modèle de flamme épaissie. Enfin, une analyse du cas où les régimes prémélangés et non-prémélangés sont présents tous les deux permet d’étudier un moyen simple de les distinguer même dans le cas où ils sont très proches. Dans un second temps, ces travaux se tournent vers l’étude de l’allumage dans un moteur fusée cryotechnique. Après avoir analysé de manière globale le calcul d’une séquence simplifiée, deux études plus approfondies sont menées pour investiguer, d’une part, les différents régimes de combustion, et d’autre part, les différents modes de propagation de la flamme propres à cette configuration. / The beginning of the conquest of space received benefits from the political competition of the Cold War and consequently grow quickly without considering the cost of these advances. The end of this unrestrained technological race brings to light the other side of the coin. In order to keep a fleet of launch vehicles up-to-date with the market, spatial agencies must answer a question : how can the cost of a launch be reduced without decreasing its efficiency. Through the use of numerical simulation, industrial partners may investigate this logic of optimisation. This solution might provide improvement in the knowledge of existing technologies, especially when experimental measurements are impossible. Following the path of theoretical and experimental results, this study aims to present a new view about the different processes occurring during the ignition of a space rocket engine. First, this research will present an improvement of the modelling of H2/O2 flame. The validation of a reduced chemical scheme basically developed for H2/Air will justify its use during the ignition sequence. Then, a turbulent combustion model for non-premixed flames will be developed in order to compensate the limits of the thickened flame model implemented in AVBP. Additionally, a study of both premixed and non-premixed regimes in a closed position will bring a simple method to distinguish them for a further active use. Secondly, this research will study the ignition process of a representative cryogenic space rocket chamber. The calculation of a simplified ignition sequence will be globally investigated. Finally, two-detailed analysis will lead to different combustion regimes and flame spreading processes

Neste trabalho foi estudada a reação de transesterificação em fase líquida entre etanoato de 2-etoxietila (CAS 111-15-9) e 2-butoxietanol (CAS 111-76-2), catalisada com óxido de nióbio, para obtenção do etanoato de 2-butoxietila (CAS 112-07-2). Aplicando-se a técnica de planejamento de experimentos (Design of Experiments, DOE), foram avaliados os efeitos de temperatura, catálise, agitação e composição inicial no resultado de conversão do reagente limitante. Foi identificada a forte influência da razão molar inicial de reagentes na velocidade de reação, além das influências também significativas da temperatura e % de catalisador. O melhor resultado de conversão foi de 76,1 % do reagente limitante, obtido para a temperatura de 130°C, 20 % de catalisador e razão molar de 6 mols de etanoato de 2-etoxietila para 1 mol de 2-butoxietanol, ao final de 5 horas de reação. O modelo cinético pseudo-homogêneo de segunda ordem foi utilizado para descrever a velocidade da reação no intervalo de reação de 110 a 130°C. As constantes cinéticas e de equilíbrio foram calculadas a partir das concentrações molares e atividades dos componentes da mistura reacional. As velocidades de reação no intervalo de temperatura estudado são mais baixas em relação às outras reações de transesterificação. As constantes de equilíbrio de reação obtidas para o intervalo de temperatura estudado são próximas do valor unitário, estando de acordo com o que a literatura relata para reações reversíveis de 2° ordem. O modelo pseudohomogêneo ajustou-se bem aos resultados de conversão. O catalisador (óxido de nióbio) apresentou alta seletividade. Para o cálculo das atividades utilizadas na obtenção da constante cinética de reação, foram realizados ensaios de equilíbrio líquido-vapor para estimativa dos parâmetros do modelo de atividade NRTL (Nonrandom, two-liquid). Os resultados dos ensaios de equilíbrio líquido-vapor mostraram pequenos desvios de idealidade para as seis misturas binárias estudadas. O modelo de atividade e seus parâmetros estimados mostraram bom ajuste dos resultados experimentais. / In this work, the transesterification reaction in liquid phase between 2-etoxyethyl acetate (CAS 111-15-9) and 2-butoxyethanol (CAS 111-76-2) to obtain the 2- butoxyethyl acetate (CAS 112-07-2) catalyzed by niobium oxide was studied. The effects of temperature, catalysis, agitation and initial composition on the result of conversion for limiting reagent were evaluated applying the technique of Design of Experiments (DOE). The strong influence of the initial molar ratio of reactants and also significant influences of temperature and % catalyst in reaction rate were indentified. The best result of conversion of limiting reagent was 76.1%, obtained for the 130°C, 20% catalyst and the molar ratio of 6 moles of 2-etoxyethyl acetate to 1 mol of 2-butoxyethanol, at the end 5 hours of reaction. The second order pseudohomogeneous kinetic model was used to describe the reaction rate in the range 110- 130°C. The kinetic and equilibrium constants were calculated from the molar concentrations and activities of the mixtures components. The reaction rates in the temperature range studied are lower when compared to other transesterification reactions. The reaction equilibrium constants obtained for the temperature range studied are close to the unit value, which is consistent with literature reports for the reversible reactions of 2nd order. The pseudo-homogeneous model fitted well the results of conversion. The catalyst (niobium oxide) showed high selectivity. Vaporliquid equilibrium assays were performed to estimate parameters of the NRTL (nonrandom, two-liquid) activity model for the calculation of components activities used to obtain the kinetic constant of reaction. The kinetic models proposed showed a good fit of the experimental data. The results of vapor-liquid equilibrium assays showed small deviations from ideality for the six binary mixtures evaluated. The activity model and its estimated parameters showed good fit of the experimental results.

Les carburants dérivés du pétrole constituent la première source mondiale énergétique et leur approvisionnement constitue un défi actuel majeur impliquant des enjeux économiques et environnementaux cruciaux. Une des voies les plus efficaces pour peser simultanément sur ces deux enjeux passe par la diminution de la consommation en carburant. La simulation numérique constitue dès lors un outil précieux pour améliorer et optimiser les moteurs et les carburants. Les modèles chimiques détaillés sont nécessaires pour comprendre les phénomènes d’auto-inflammation et caractériser la nature et les quantités de polluants émis. Ces modèles mettent en jeu un nombre très important d’espèces et de réactions élémentaires, pour une espèce donnée et pour lesquelles la détermination des données thermodynamiques et cinétiques est un problème crucial. La chimie quantique constitue un outil précieux permettant d’une part de déterminer de façon précise les données thermocinétiques pour bon nombre de systèmes chimiques et d’autre part de mieux comprendre la réactivité de ces systèmes. Dans ce travail, les réactions unimoléculaires de décomposition d’hydrocarbures monocycliques et polycycliques (amorçages, réactions moléculaires, ß-scissions, formations d’éthers cycliques) ont été étudiées à l’aide des méthodes de la chimie quantique. Un mécanisme détaillé de pyrolyse d’un alcane polycyclique a été développé à partir des données thermodynamiques et cinétiques et des corrélations entre structure et réactivité déterminées pour les cyclanes à partir des calculs quantiques. Les simulations effectuées à partir de ce modèle sont en très bon accord avec les résultats expérimentaux de la littérature / Petroleum fuels are the world’s most important primary energy source and the need to maintain their supply is a major actual challenge involving both economical and environmental features. Decreasing fuels consumption is one of the more efficient ways to reconcile the goals of energy price and environmental protection. Numerical simulations become therefore a very important tool to optimize fuels and motors. Detailed chemical kinetic models are required to reproduce the reactivity of fuels and to characterize the amount of emitted pollutants. Such models imply a very large number of chemical species and elementary reactions, for a given species, and the determination of thermodynamic and kinetic data is a critical problem. Nowadays, quantum chemistry methods are able to calculate accurately thermodynamic data for a large number of chemical systems and to elucidate the reactivity of these systems. In this work we have used quantum chemistry to study the unimolecular reactions (initiation, molecular reactions, ß-scissions, cyclic ethers formations) involved in the decomposition of monocyclic and polycyclic hydrocarbons. From the results of quantum chemical calculations, a detailed chemical kinetic mechanism of the pyrolysis of a polycyclic alkane has been developed and validated against experimental data

Os receptores nicotínicos de acetilcolina (colinérgicos) (nAChRs) neuronais são proteínas integrais de membrana e pertencem à família de canais iônicos controlados por ligante, compostos por subunidades α e β. Esses receptores desempenham um papel-chave na transmissão de sinal entre os neurônios nos sistemas nervoso central e periférico. O subtipo α3β4, por exemplo, é o nAChR neuronal mais expresso no sistema nervoso autônomo; nAChRs contendo a subunidade α3 estão presentes em alta densidade no gânglio cervical superior, glândulas pineal e adrenais. Também estão presentes na substancia nigra, striatum, hipocampo, locus ceruleus, tracto habênulo-interpeduncular e cerebelo. Os nAChRs são inibidos por uma variedade de substâncias químicas, incluindo toxinas naturais, anestésicos locais, drogas de abuso (por, exemplo, cocaína) e compostos clinicamente importantes (tranqüilizantes, por exemplo). O mecanismo de inibição desses receptores tem sido investigado intensivamente. Neste estudo, nós investigamos o mecanismo pelo qual a tacrina (9-1,2,3,4-tetraidroaminoacridina), um agente usado clinicamente no tratamento da doença de Alzheimer, inibe o nAChR α3β4 de rato recombinante expresso nas células KXα3β4R2, utilizando uma técnica de cinética química rápida. A constante de dissociação da nicotina do sítio que controla a ativação do receptor, Kd, é 23 µM e a constante de equilíbrio de abertura do canal, Φ-1, é 4. A tacrina inibe o receptor competitivamente, com um KI de 0,77 µM. / Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine (cholinergic) receptors (nAChRs) are integral membrane proteins and belong to the family of ligand-gated cation channels composed by α and β subunits. These receptors play a key role in the signal transmission between neurons in the central and peripheral nervous system. The α3β4 subtype, for example, is the most expressed neuronal nAChR in autonomic ganglia; α3-containing nAChRs are present at particularly high density in the superior cervical ganglia, pineal, and adrenal glands. They are also present in the substancia nigra, striatum, hippocampus, locus ceruleus, habenulo-interpeduncular tract and cerebellum. The nAChRs are inhibited by a variety of chemical substances, including natural toxins, local anesthetics, abused drugs (e.g., cocaine) and clinically important compounds (e.g., tranquilizers). The mechanism of inhibition of these receptors has been intensively investigated. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which tacrine (9-1,2,3,4-tetahydroaminoacridine), an agent used clinically to treat Alzheimers disease, inhibits the recombinant rat α3β4 nAChR expressed in KXα3β4R2 cells, using a rapid chemical kinetic technique. The nicotine dissociation constant for the site controlling receptor activation, Kd, is 23 µM and the channel-opening equilibrium constant, Φ-1, is 4. Tacrine inhibits the receptor competitively, with a KI of 0.77 µM.

L'influence des paramétrisations chimiques et météorologiques sur les concentrations de polluants calculées avec un modèle de qualité de l'air est étudiée. L'influence des différences entre deux mécanismes chimiques de la phase gazeuse sur la formation d'ozone et d'aérosols en Europe est faible en moyenne. Pour l'ozone, les fortes différences observées localement proviennent principalement de l'incertitude associée à la cinétique des réactions d'oxydation du monoxyde d'azote (NO) d'une part et de la représentation des différents chemins d'oxydation des composés aromatiques d'autre part. Les concentrations d'aérosols sont surtout influencées par la prise en compte des précurseurs majeurs d'aérosols secondaires et le traitement explicite des régimes chimiques correspondant au niveau d'oxydes d'azote (NOx). L'influence des paramétrisations météorologiques sur les concentrations d'aérosols et leur répartition verticale est évaluée sur l'Île de France par comparaison à des données lidar. L'influence de la paramétrisation de la dynamique de la couche limite atmosphérique est importante ; cependant, c'est l'utilisation d'un modèle de canopée urbaine qui permet d'améliorer considérablement la modélisation de la répartition verticale des polluants / The influence of chemical mechanisms and meteorological parameterizations on pollutant concentrations calculated with an air quality model is studied. The influence of the differences between two gas-phase chemical mechanisms on the formation of ozone and aerosols in Europe is low on average. For ozone, the large local differences are mainly due to the uncertainty associated with the kinetics of nitrogen monoxide (NO) oxidation reactions on the one hand and the representation of different pathways for the oxidation of aromatic compounds on the other hand. The aerosol concentrations are mainly influenced by the selection of all major precursors of secondary aerosols and the explicit treatment of chemical regimes corresponding to the nitrogen oxides (NOx) levels. The influence of the meteorological parameterizations on the concentrations of aerosols and their vertical distribution is evaluated over the Paris region in France by comparison to lidar data. The influence of the parameterization of the dynamics in the atmospheric boundary layer is important ; however, it is the use of an urban canopy model that improves significantly the modeling of the pollutant vertical distribution

The influence of chemical mechanisms and meteorological parameterizations on pollutant concentrations calculated with an air quality model is studied. The influence of the differences between two gas-phase chemical mechanisms on the formation of ozone and aerosols in Europe is low on average. For ozone, the large local differences are mainly due to the uncertainty associated with the kinetics of nitrogen monoxide (NO) oxidation reactions on the one hand and the representation of different pathways for the oxidation of aromatic compounds on the other hand. The aerosol concentrations are mainly influenced by the selection of all major precursors of secondary aerosols and the explicit treatment of chemical regimes corresponding to the nitrogen oxides (NOx) levels. The influence of the meteorological parameterizations on the concentrations of aerosols and their vertical distribution is evaluated over the Paris region in France by comparison to lidar data. The influence of the parameterization of the dynamics in the atmospheric boundary layer is important ; however, it is the use of an urban canopy model that improves significantly the modeling of the pollutant vertical distribution