A urine model has been developed. The model is used in the computation of chemical speciation and degree of precipitation by means of equilibrium constants and solubility products. The urine model was developed in order to investigate some of the factors associated with urolithiasis. A specific model development procedure was used. This procedure was based on iterative construction, validation, refinement and usage of the model. One refinement stage involved the potentiometric characterisation of the solution equilibria of the Mg-P0 4-NH 3-H system. Whereas the subsystems; H-P0 4 , H-NH 3 and Mg-P0 4 -H, were rigorously characterised, the overall system was only tentatively explored. The results obtained, however, indicate that the characterisation of the three subsystems is likely to be sufficient for the purposes of the urine model. The validation of the basic urine model was achieved by comparing the model's predicted precipitation with experimental observations in another project currently being pursued in this department. This validation has indicated that the kinetics of precipitation should be taken into account for some of the important urinary so 1 id. The urine mode 1 was nevertheless successfully used to investigate the effect of pH on urinary precipitation, the influence of some urinary components on calcium oxalate precipitation and the role of cadmium in urolithiasis. The results obtained were in general agreement with other observed and predicted results. Finally, a coherent procedure for investigating the problems of urolithiasis by means of such a model is proposed.

A simulação numérica de escoamentos reativos, como a combustão, tem um caráter altamente não-linear devido a presença de diversas reações químicas que acontecem entre as espécies que descrevem o processo de oxidação do combustível. Além disso, tais processos ocorrem a nível molecular, tornando o sistema de equações governantes rígido, o que implica na necessidade de esquemas numéricos de alta ordem bem como malhas finas e passo de tempo pequeno, aumentando consideravelmente o custo computacional. Neste sentido, o uso de mecanismos de oxidação detalhados na simulação numérica é proibitivo, e técnicas de redução química são necessárias de modo a desenvolver modelos reduzidos com menos variáveis e rigidez moderado, mantendo a precisão e abrangência do modelo detalhado. O objetivo do presente trabalho é obter uma comparação dos resultados obtidos para duas técnicas de redução química diferentes, Directed Relation Graph - DRG, baseada no desenvolvimento de mecanismos esqueletos, e a Reaction Diffusion Manifolds - REDIM, baseada na separação das escalas de tempo. Como validação dos modelos propostos, simulações numéricas 1D de chamas pré-misturadas e não pré-misturadas, bem como de reatores homogêneos, são desenvolvidas. Além disso, uma estratégia que une as duas técnicas de redução é apresentada, com o objetivo de ser aplicada em mecanismos cinéticos grandes. / Numerical simulation of reactive flows, such as combustion, has a highly non-linear character due to the presence of several chemical reactions that occur among the chemical species that describe the process of fuel’s oxidation. Besides, such processes occur at a molecular level, making the system of governing equations stiff, which implies in the need of high order numerical schemes as well as fine meshes and small time step, enhancing considerably the computational cost. In this sense, the use of detailed oxidation mechanisms in the numerical simulation is prohibitive, and chemical reduction techniques are needed in order to develop reduced models with less variables and moderate stiffness, while maintaining the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the detailed model. The objective of the present works if to obtain a comparison between two chemical reduction techniques, the Directed Relation Graph - DRG, based on the skeletal mechanisms generation, and the Reaction Diffusion Manifolds - REDIM, based on the separation of time scales. As validation of the proposed models, one-dimensional numerical simulations of premixed and non-premixed flames, as well as homogeneous reactors, are carry out. Besides, a coupled methodology between DRG and REDIM is presented, that will provide a useful tool for simulation of fuels with very large detailed kinetic mechanisms.

A simulação numérica de escoamentos reativos, como a combustão, tem um caráter altamente não-linear devido a presença de diversas reações químicas que acontecem entre as espécies que descrevem o processo de oxidação do combustível. Além disso, tais processos ocorrem a nível molecular, tornando o sistema de equações governantes rígido, o que implica na necessidade de esquemas numéricos de alta ordem bem como malhas finas e passo de tempo pequeno, aumentando consideravelmente o custo computacional. Neste sentido, o uso de mecanismos de oxidação detalhados na simulação numérica é proibitivo, e técnicas de redução química são necessárias de modo a desenvolver modelos reduzidos com menos variáveis e rigidez moderado, mantendo a precisão e abrangência do modelo detalhado. O objetivo do presente trabalho é obter uma comparação dos resultados obtidos para duas técnicas de redução química diferentes, Directed Relation Graph - DRG, baseada no desenvolvimento de mecanismos esqueletos, e a Reaction Diffusion Manifolds - REDIM, baseada na separação das escalas de tempo. Como validação dos modelos propostos, simulações numéricas 1D de chamas pré-misturadas e não pré-misturadas, bem como de reatores homogêneos, são desenvolvidas. Além disso, uma estratégia que une as duas técnicas de redução é apresentada, com o objetivo de ser aplicada em mecanismos cinéticos grandes. / Numerical simulation of reactive flows, such as combustion, has a highly non-linear character due to the presence of several chemical reactions that occur among the chemical species that describe the process of fuel’s oxidation. Besides, such processes occur at a molecular level, making the system of governing equations stiff, which implies in the need of high order numerical schemes as well as fine meshes and small time step, enhancing considerably the computational cost. In this sense, the use of detailed oxidation mechanisms in the numerical simulation is prohibitive, and chemical reduction techniques are needed in order to develop reduced models with less variables and moderate stiffness, while maintaining the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the detailed model. The objective of the present works if to obtain a comparison between two chemical reduction techniques, the Directed Relation Graph - DRG, based on the skeletal mechanisms generation, and the Reaction Diffusion Manifolds - REDIM, based on the separation of time scales. As validation of the proposed models, one-dimensional numerical simulations of premixed and non-premixed flames, as well as homogeneous reactors, are carry out. Besides, a coupled methodology between DRG and REDIM is presented, that will provide a useful tool for simulation of fuels with very large detailed kinetic mechanisms.

A simulação numérica de escoamentos reativos, como a combustão, tem um caráter altamente não-linear devido a presença de diversas reações químicas que acontecem entre as espécies que descrevem o processo de oxidação do combustível. Além disso, tais processos ocorrem a nível molecular, tornando o sistema de equações governantes rígido, o que implica na necessidade de esquemas numéricos de alta ordem bem como malhas finas e passo de tempo pequeno, aumentando consideravelmente o custo computacional. Neste sentido, o uso de mecanismos de oxidação detalhados na simulação numérica é proibitivo, e técnicas de redução química são necessárias de modo a desenvolver modelos reduzidos com menos variáveis e rigidez moderado, mantendo a precisão e abrangência do modelo detalhado. O objetivo do presente trabalho é obter uma comparação dos resultados obtidos para duas técnicas de redução química diferentes, Directed Relation Graph - DRG, baseada no desenvolvimento de mecanismos esqueletos, e a Reaction Diffusion Manifolds - REDIM, baseada na separação das escalas de tempo. Como validação dos modelos propostos, simulações numéricas 1D de chamas pré-misturadas e não pré-misturadas, bem como de reatores homogêneos, são desenvolvidas. Além disso, uma estratégia que une as duas técnicas de redução é apresentada, com o objetivo de ser aplicada em mecanismos cinéticos grandes. / Numerical simulation of reactive flows, such as combustion, has a highly non-linear character due to the presence of several chemical reactions that occur among the chemical species that describe the process of fuel’s oxidation. Besides, such processes occur at a molecular level, making the system of governing equations stiff, which implies in the need of high order numerical schemes as well as fine meshes and small time step, enhancing considerably the computational cost. In this sense, the use of detailed oxidation mechanisms in the numerical simulation is prohibitive, and chemical reduction techniques are needed in order to develop reduced models with less variables and moderate stiffness, while maintaining the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the detailed model. The objective of the present works if to obtain a comparison between two chemical reduction techniques, the Directed Relation Graph - DRG, based on the skeletal mechanisms generation, and the Reaction Diffusion Manifolds - REDIM, based on the separation of time scales. As validation of the proposed models, one-dimensional numerical simulations of premixed and non-premixed flames, as well as homogeneous reactors, are carry out. Besides, a coupled methodology between DRG and REDIM is presented, that will provide a useful tool for simulation of fuels with very large detailed kinetic mechanisms.

The hostile circumstellar environment of an emerging protoplanetary nebula (PPN) and its transformation to a planetary nebula (PN) is an area of active observation and yet, many uncertainties still exist, not least in explanations of molecular abundances. Additionally, the combination of extreme radiation fields, X-rays and high velocity shocks may also drive interesting and possible novel chemical reactions and pathways. Thorough molecular surveys on PNe are minimal and in-depth modelling of specific sources to explain observed molecular abundances, are also limited in the literature. Modelling of species such as H2O within a PN, have yet to be explored in detail at all. This thesis describes observations of NGC 6302, a young butterfly PN with possibly the highest identified central mass of any known PN (∼2-3 M⊙), which have recently been undertaken at the SMA. Image maps and spectra for a number of molecular species were obtained in order to provide further insights into chemical behaviour within a PN. Observational results have been compared with detailed modelling to as- certain the role of various environmental factors on the chemistry within NGC 6302. It was found that an outflow could possibly be responsible for enhanced emission for HCO+, HCN and SiO. Species such as 13CS and 29SiC2 are also enhanced in the direction of the bi-polar lobes. N2H+ is confined to the dense torus, with CN also displaying little enhancement beyond the CO emission. Models suggest that whilst SO2 is abundant in low oxygen abundances but nitrogen-enriched dense clouds, H2O can be produced efficiently in all environments. It was also found that in standard models, H2O reactions proceed differently to H2O formation in dense-cloud models and circumstellar envelopes.

Mechanisms of reactions of the frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs) with carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen (H2) are studied by using quantum chemical modelling. FLPs are relatively novel chemical systems in which steric effects prevent a Lewis base (LB) from donating its electron pair to a Lewis acid (LA). From the main group of the periodic table, a variety of the electron pair donors and acceptors can create an FLP and the scope of the FLP chemistry is rapidly expanding at present. Representative intermolecular FLPs are phosphines and boranes with bulky electron-donating groups on phosphorus and bulky electron-withdrawing groups on boron – e.g., the tBu3P/B(C6F5)3 pair. The intramolecular FLPs feature linked LB and LA centers in one molecule. Investigations of the FLP reaction mechanisms were carried out using the transition state (TS) and the potential energy surface (PES) calculations plus the Born-Oppenheimer molecular dynamics (BOMD) as an efficient and robust implementation of general ab initio molecular dynamics scheme. In BOMD simulations, quantum and classical mechanics are combined. The electronic structure calculations are fully quantum via the density functional theory (DFT). Molecular motion at finite (non-zero) temperature is explicitly accounted for at non-quantized level via Newton’s equations. Due to recent advancements of computers and algorithms, one can treat fairly large macromolecular systems with BOMD and even include significant portion of the first solvation shell surrounding a large reacting complex in the molecular model. Main results are as follows. It is shown that dynamics is significant for understanding of FLP chemistry. The multiscale nature of motion – i.e., light molecules such as CO2 or H2 versus a pair of heavy LB and LA molecules – affects the evolution of interactions in the reacting complex. Motion which is perpendicular to the reaction coordinate was found to play a role in the transit of the activated complex through the TS-region. Regarding the heterolytic cleavage of H2 by tBu3P/B(C6F5)3 FLP simulated in gas phase and with explicit solvent, it was found that (i) the reaction path includes shallow quasi-minima “imbedded” in the TS-region, and (ii) tBu3P/B(C6F5)3 are almost stationary while proton- and hydride-like fragments of H2 move toward phosphorous and boron respectively. For binding of CO2 by tBu3P/B(C6F5)3 FLP, it was found that (i) the reacting complex can “wander” along the “potential energy wall” that temporarily blocks the path to the product, and (ii) the mechanism can combine the concerted and two-step reaction paths in solution. The discovered two-step binding of CO2 by tBu3P/B(C6F5)3 FLP involves solvent-stabilized phosphorus-carbon interactions (dative bonding). These and other presented results are corroborated and explained using TS and PES calculations. With computations of observable characteristics of reactions, it is pointed out how it could be possible to attain experimental proof of the results. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 6: Accepted.</p><p> </p>

There has recently been an increased interest in methane as a rocket propellant due to its physical properties as well as the possibility of in-situ resource utilization in places like Mars. As part of ESA’s Future Launcher Preparatory Program, KTH in cooperation with GKN Aerospace has started the MERiT program, which seeks to study the characteristics of methane under conditions found in rocket nozzle cooling channels. In particular, the current work examines the influence of different wall temperatures, fluid flow rates, and fluid residence times on methane pyrolysis due to the catalytic properties of nickel based metals. Pyrolysis is the thermo-catalytic decomposition of methane, which results in the creation of hydrogen and solid carbon in the cooling channels. This can affect the performance of the rocket engine, the cooling channels, as well as the lifespan of the engine, which makes the process important to quantify when designing highly reusable engines. A chemical kinetics computer model has been developed, which has been used to quantify the most important parameters for methane pyrolysis. Based on these results, a small-scale pyrolysis experimental setup has been developed and used to characterise methane pyrolysis for different material temperatures and gas flow rates. The experimental setup has been proven to work and consistently provide pyrolysis at temperatures between 600 ◦C to 700 ◦C, although more work on the data collection side, in particular with regards to a gas chromatograph and a scanning electron microscope, is required to quantify and compare different experiments.

A fundamental theoretical and experimental study on calcium sulphate scale formation in hydrometallurgical solutions containing various minerals was conducted. A new database for the Mixed Solvent Electrolyte (MSE) model of the OLI Systems® software was developed through fitting of existing literature data such as mean activity, heat capacity and solubility data in simple binary and ternary systems. Moreover, a number of experiments were conducted to investigate the chemistry of calcium sulphate hydrates in laterite pressure acid leach (PAL) solutions, containing Al2(SO4)3, MgSO4, NiSO4, H2SO4, and NaCl at 25–250ºC. The database developed, utilized by the MSE model, was shown to accurately predict the solubilities of all calcium sulphate hydrates (and hence, predict scaling potential) in various multicomponent hydrometallurgical solutions including neutralized zinc sulphate leach solutions, nickel sulphate–chloride solutions of the Voisey’s Bay plant, and laterite PAL solutions over a wide temperature range (25–250°C). The stability regions of CaSO4 hydrates (gypsum, hemihydrate and anhydrite) depend on solution conditions, i.e., temperature, pH and concentration of ions present. The transformation between CaSO4 hydrates is one of the common causes of scale formation. A systematic study was carried out to investigate the effect of various parameters including temperature, acidity, seeding, and presence of sulphate/chloride salts on the transformation kinetics. Based on the results obtained, a mechanism for the gypsum–anhydrite transformation below 100°C was proposed. A number of solutions for mitigating calcium sulphate scaling problems throughout the processing circuits were recommended: (1) operating autoclaves under slightly more acidic conditions (~0.3–0.5 M acid); (2) mixing recycled process solutions with seawater; and (3) mixing the recycling stream with carbonate compounds to reject calcium as calcium carbonate. Furthermore, aging process solutions, saturated with gypsum, with anhydrite seeds at moderate temperatures (~80°C) would decrease the calcium content, provided that the solution is slightly acidic.

A fundamental theoretical and experimental study on calcium sulphate scale formation in hydrometallurgical solutions containing various minerals was conducted. A new database for the Mixed Solvent Electrolyte (MSE) model of the OLI Systems® software was developed through fitting of existing literature data such as mean activity, heat capacity and solubility data in simple binary and ternary systems. Moreover, a number of experiments were conducted to investigate the chemistry of calcium sulphate hydrates in laterite pressure acid leach (PAL) solutions, containing Al2(SO4)3, MgSO4, NiSO4, H2SO4, and NaCl at 25–250ºC. The database developed, utilized by the MSE model, was shown to accurately predict the solubilities of all calcium sulphate hydrates (and hence, predict scaling potential) in various multicomponent hydrometallurgical solutions including neutralized zinc sulphate leach solutions, nickel sulphate–chloride solutions of the Voisey’s Bay plant, and laterite PAL solutions over a wide temperature range (25–250°C). The stability regions of CaSO4 hydrates (gypsum, hemihydrate and anhydrite) depend on solution conditions, i.e., temperature, pH and concentration of ions present. The transformation between CaSO4 hydrates is one of the common causes of scale formation. A systematic study was carried out to investigate the effect of various parameters including temperature, acidity, seeding, and presence of sulphate/chloride salts on the transformation kinetics. Based on the results obtained, a mechanism for the gypsum–anhydrite transformation below 100°C was proposed. A number of solutions for mitigating calcium sulphate scaling problems throughout the processing circuits were recommended: (1) operating autoclaves under slightly more acidic conditions (~0.3–0.5 M acid); (2) mixing recycled process solutions with seawater; and (3) mixing the recycling stream with carbonate compounds to reject calcium as calcium carbonate. Furthermore, aging process solutions, saturated with gypsum, with anhydrite seeds at moderate temperatures (~80°C) would decrease the calcium content, provided that the solution is slightly acidic.