In the presence and aftermath of armed conflict and war, there has always been contact between armed troops and civilians ranging from superficial to intimate; and from these contacts children have been born. These children are so-called Children Born of War (CBOW), who are typically fathered by foreign soldiers and born to local mothers. Their existence is a worldwide and timeless, yet widely ignored reality – to the disservice of these children and their communities. German and Austrian Occupation Children (GOC resp. AOC), whom I will investigate in this dissertation, are subgroups of this worldwide population of CBOW and are fathered by a soldier of the allied forces “occupying” Germany and Austria after World War II and born to a German resp. Austrian mother. 74 Several studies have described the hardships these children faced when growing up in postwar Germany and Austria, being born as a child of the enemy and out of wedlock into a defeated and tarnished former National Socialist society, in which losing the war and the regime did not equal losing the National Socialist mindset. Studies already showed that growing up as an occupation child in postwar Germany likely included experiences of discrimination and stigmatization (e.g. Aßmann et al., 2015), as well as heightened risks to be subjected to child maltreatment and to suffer from depression, somatization, PTSD, and long-term attachment issues (Glaesmer et al., 2017; Kaiser et al., 2016, 2015; Kaiser, Kuwert, & Glaesmer, 2015). There have been case-studies and reports from the field of history and social sciences about occupation children voicing problems with identity and identity formation, but systematic, empirical studies covering this topic have been lacking thus far. This dissertation intended to close this gap in literature by systematically investigating identity issues and questions of identity that occupation children face. We applied a mixed-method approach in an effort to gain different types of data and ultimately a better coverage and understanding of these topics.:INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 4 Historical Background ...................................................................................................... 4 Theoretical Background ................................................................................................... 8 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................ 14 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 15 Study Design & Samples .................................................................................................. 15 Instruments ...................................................................................................................... 17 CORE PUBLICATIONS OF THIS DISSERTATION ...................................................... 21 Publication I ..................................................................................................................... 22 Publication II ................................................................................................................... 34 Publication III .................................................................................................................. 47 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 61 Summary of Findings ....................................................................................................... 61 Strengths and Limitations ................................................................................................. 62 Outlook ........................................................................................................................... 63 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 65 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................... 72 1. Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. 72 2. Zusammenfassung der Arbeit ..................................................................................... 73 3. Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit .............................................. 77 4. Darstellung des eigenen Beitrags ................................................................................. 78 5. Curriculum Vitae ........................................................................................................ 79 6. Publikationsverzeichnis ............................................................................................... 80 7. Danksagung ................................................................................................................ 81 8. Teilnahmebestätigung „Gute wissenschaftliche Praxis“............................................... 83 9. GOC Questionnaire ................................................................................................... 84

Objective: Children Born of War (CBOW) are an international and timeless phenomenon that exists in every country involved in war or armed conflict. Nevertheless, little is known on a systematic level about those children, who are typically fathered by a foreign or enemy soldier and born to a local mother. In particular, the identity issues that CBOW often report have remained largely uninvestigated. In the current qualitative study we began filling this gap in the scientific literature by asking how CBOW construct their identity in self-descriptions. Method: We utilized thematic content analysis of N = 122 German CBOWs' answers to an open-ended questionnaire item asking how they see themselves and their identity in the context of being a CBOW. Results: We identified five key themes in CBOW' identity accounts. Loneliness and lack of belonging appeared as a paramount aspect of their self-descriptions next to narratives about belonging and positive relationship. On a less interpersonal basis, we found fighting and surviving and searching for truth and completion overarching aspects of their identities. There were also few accounts growing up unaffected by the fact of being born a CBOW. Although all themes portray different perspectives, they all (but the last one) clearly indicate the impeded circumstances under which CBOW had to grow up. Conclusions: Integrating our findings with existing interdisciplinary literature regarding identity, we discuss implications for future research and clinical and political practice.

The main subject of the research is the social discourse about the ethnic identity of children born of rape during the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992-1995. Acts of rape are considered to be part of the war tactics of major rivals (Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Army of Republika Srpska, and Croatian Defence Council) and paramilitary units. Forced fertilization and disallowance of abortion was carried out as an accompanying factor of ethnic cleansing. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia has recognized these acts as war crimes. The main objective of the research is to pursue a cross- societal discussion on the issue of inheritance of identity in the case of children of war: first, through a discourse analysis of the media, which significantly contribute to the image of these children, and second, through the contribution of interviews conducted during the field research. The way in which the children born of war are depicted and perceived affects various aspects of their lives. The results of the project will contribute to the discussion of war crimes and their impact on contemporary Bosnian society.

No description available.

Sexual violence perpetrated against women during armed conflicts represents a severe violation of their fundamental human rights. This heinous act not only inflicts significant harm on the women themselves but also results in the birth of children conceived due to wartime rape. Previous research has marked that children born of war encounter various forms of discrimination, stigma, neglect, abuse, and sometimes limited access to education and healthcare. As a vulnerable group, children born of war often have single mothers who have experienced sexual violence, resulting in potential lack of support from their family and communities. This paper investigates the circumstances and obstacles faced by children born of war but also what is necessary to properly support these children, according to the five organisations interviewed. It shines light on the need for comprehensive support systems to address their specific needs in the future, such as the urgent need for early interventions and psychological support, along with providing children born of war the opportunity to connect with their biological heritage to foster a sense of identity amongst others.

Whenever there have been wars, children were a result of intimate relationships between deployed (foreign/ enemy) soldiers and local women ranging from love affairs to systematic sexual violence. These children born of war (CBOW) are a common phenomenon of war, yet their fate has not experienced much attention in research during the last decades (Lee, 2012). At the end of World War II (WWII) and thereafter, maximum 400,000 children were born to German women fathered by soldiers of the four occupying forces (Britain, France, USA, Soviet Union) (Stelzl-Marx & Satjukow, 2015). These are called “children born of occupation” or “occupation children” in research, yet the term is still under debate, since after all, these individuals are not children anymore today. Several archival and case studies from historical and social sciences have been describing the hardship these children had to face, being born “child of the enemy” and “born out of wedlock” into a defeated and contrite former National Socialist society, where losing the war however did not necessarily mean a change in mindset. Their results hint at disorientation regarding the question of belonging, and emotional as well as mental distress in the experiences of many of these children (Glaesmer, Kaiser, Freyberger et al., 2012; Mochmann et al., 2009; Satjukow, 2009, 2011; Stelzl-Marx, 2009). Nevertheless, a psychosocial perspective had been missing so far. When assessing psychosocial consequences of growing up as child in this societal context, a study needs to focus on three main aspects: Identity development, stigmatization/ discrimination, and child maltreatment (Glaesmer, Kaiser, Freyberger et al., 2012). In 2013, the study “Occupation children: identity development, stigma experience, and psychosocial consequences growing up as a ‘German occupation child’” launched and recruited 164 people via press release (App. 8.6) and contact to platforms of occupation children of which 146 were included in the analyses (mean age 63.4, 63.0% women). Since GOC are difficult to reach, their population size is small and can only be estimated; they can be considered a „hidden population“. These populations cannot be investigated by standardized instruments only but need a participative research approach to tailor instruments to their reality (Heckathorn, 1997; Salganik & Heckathorn, 2004). Participative research enhances chances of acceptance and compliance among the target population (Brendel, 2002). Therefore, the applied instrument (App. 8.7) consists of two parts: a self-developed part on experiences specific for this group of CBOW deducted from literature and developed in a participative approach with the help of occupation children themselves as well as experienced researchers in this field. Part two contains standardized psychometric instruments assessing current mental distress and traumatic childhood experiences among others (please refer to publication I for a detailed description of the instruments). This dissertation focused on the specific living and developmental conditions for GOC in post-WWII Germany (change of attachment figures, financial situation, knowledge of biological background etc.) as well as experiences of stigmatization/ discrimination and traumatic experiences during their life and childhood specifically. Furthermore, this work investigated current mental distress and attachment in close adult relationships. The following is a summary for each of the five articles this dissertation is based on: 1. Growing up as an occupation child of World War II in Germany: Rationale and methods of a study on German occupation children A specific instrument was developed in a participative research approach to investigate German occupation children as a hidden population. It consists of a self-developed part assessing specific experiences described for CBOW during childhood and adolescence (e.g. attachment figures and change of attachment figures, knowledge about biological father and his background, housing situation, experiences of stigmatization) and a second part with standardized instruments assessing mental disorders, attachment in close adult relationships, traumatic experiences, and childhood maltreatment. Overall, the developed questionnaire was well accepted by the target group and topics covered were of high relevance. Finally, N=146 subjects with fathers from all four occupation forces were included in the study (48.6% American, 22.6% French, 21.9% Soviet, 4.1% British). The distribution of each subgroup can be ascribed to the sampling method of contacting platforms of occupation children. Concerning their procreation background the majority (75.3%) stated their parents had a positively defined relationship. Only 10 (6.8%) children born out of rape participated. 2. Depression, Somatization, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Children Born of Occupation After World War II in Comparison With a General Population The comparison of findings for GOC with a representative birth-cohort-matched sample (BCMS) from the German general population (N=977) showed that GOC report significantly higher prevalence rates of most traumatic experiences, higher one-month prevalence rates of full and partial PTSD, depression and somatization than the control group. Especially high impact traumatic events (e.g. childhood abuse, rape, and physical violence) were more frequent among GOC. Furthermore, GOC reported growing up under difficult conditions (e.g. poverty, single mothers, change of attachment figures in childhood, and stigmatization). These findings show that even decades after these experiences have ended, they suffer from higher rates of depression, somatization and posttraumatic stress as well as comorbid conditions. The results thereby underline the complex and long-term impact of their burdened social, financial and familial conditions on current mental health. 3. Long-term effects on adult attachment in German occupation children born after World War II in comparison with a birth-cohort-matched representative sample of the German general population The linear and binary logistic regression analyses of adult attachment and its association with current depression in GOC (N=146) in comparison to a birth-cohort-matched representative sample (BCMS) of the German population (BCMS; N=786) show that GOC are less comfortable with closeness/ intimacy and report a lowered ability to depend on others in close relationships. This shows in more dismissive and fearful attachment compared to BCMS. In line with existing research, insecure adult attachment is associated with current depression. These results are discussed in relation to the difficult circumstances under which GOC grew up (e.g. single mothers, change of attachment figures in childhood, adverse events, stigmatization) and thus underline the complex and long-term impact of the developmental conditions on attachment and current mental health. 4. German Occupation Children: Experiences of Stigmatization after World War II Experiences of stigmatization and discrimination were a shared truth for GOC. More than half of the sample (54.6%) stated having experienced stigmatization, one-fifth of them „frequently“ or „constant­ly“. Major reasons were father’s origin, physical attributes or illegitimacy at birth. Stigmatization took place in children’s immediate social environment, in public institutions and in their own families, mostly in childhood and adolescence. The majority stated withdrawal and avoidance as coping behaviors. Findings indicate the magnitude of stigmatizing experiences in this subgroup of the German population in frequency of experiences as well as in terms of impact on all levels of social interaction. 5. Childhood maltreatment in children born of occupation after WWII in Germany and its associ­ation with mental disorders Experiences of emotional abuse/ neglect, physical and sexual abuse are significantly higher in GOC compared to the representative birth-cohort-matched sample (BCMS) from the German general population (N=920). All five subtypes of childhood maltreatment (CM) increase the risk of PTSD and somatoform syndrome. Depressive syndromes are associated with emotional abuse/ neglect and physical abuse. GOC were at high risk of CM. Findings underline the complex, long-term impact of developmental conditions and CM on mental disorders even decades later.:Table of contents 1. Background 1.1 Historical background 1.2 Theoretical background 2. Research objectives 3. Methods 3.1 Study design & samples 3.2 Instruments 4. Outline of publications 5. Discussion 5.1 Limitations 5.2 Outlook 6. Summary/ Zusammenfassung 7. References 8. Appendix 8.1 Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit 8.2 Darstellung des eigenen Beitrags 8.3 Curriculum vitae 8.4 Publikationsverzeichnis 8.5 Danksagung 8.6 Press release 8.7 GOC Questionnaire

Objective: Research on the impact study participation has on participants has shown that, even though they may find it stressful during participation, overall, they appear to benefit personally and emerge with a positive cost-benefit-balance. In 2013, the first psychological study on German occupation children (GOC), a potentially vulnerable and hidden study population, was conducted, after which respondents shared a high volume of positive feedback. In the context of a follow-up survey, the impact of study participation on participants was investigated to determine the causes of this distinctly positive outcome. Methods: Mixed-methods approach using the standardized Reactions to Research Participation Questionnaire (RRPQ) as well as open-ended questions on expectations toward participation, and changes due to participation in dealing with GOC background and in personal life. Analyses included N = 65 participants (mean age 68.92, 40% men) and were carried out with descriptive measures for RRPQ and inductive content analysis for open-ended questions. Results: Participants specified six motives for participation besides answering the standardized form; 46.2% (n = 30) saw their expectations met. Although participation was related to negative emotions during participation, participants’ overall experience was positive; 89.2% (n = 58) stated an inclination to participate again. 52.3% (n = 34) reported participation had helped develop new ways of dealing with their GOC experiences; five contributing factors were observed. Changes in private life were reported by 24.6% (n = 16); three aspects were identified. The vast majority (81.5%; n = 53) stated, following participation, they were able to disclose their GOC background to others. Participants placed emphasis on four aspects of this experience. Conclusion: Although study participation was described as emotionally challenging during participation, participants felt that the overall impact it had on them was positive. The study was the first of its kind and thus presented an opportunity for a previously hidden population to step out of the dark, simultaneously gaining insight that helped them better understand themselves as GOC, and thereby increase their capacity for self-acceptance. Participants Frontiers in Political Science 01 frontiersin.org Kaiser and Glaesmer 10.3389/fpos.2022.853562 also benefitted from learning about the study’s findings and connecting with other GOC through activities that ensued. In conclusion, results suggest that vulnerable and/or hidden populations benefit from specific attention to their lived experiences even at higher age