Adenosine is currently limited in its application as a treatment for various cancers since intravenous infusion has not been successful due to enzymatic degradation. Entrapment/association of adenosine into chitosan nanoparticles offers a possible solution to this problem. Chitosan nanoparticles which are formed by ionotropic gelation. The size, zeta potential, morphology, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release were investigated. In the swollen state, nanoparticle had an average size between 425 to 515 nm and a positive zeta potential, as measured by dynamic light scattering. Particle size measured by transition electron microscopy varied between 135 to 183 nm. Average entrapment efficiency in the range of 72 to 78% was achieved depending on initial adenosine loading and an average association efficiency of 84%. Release studies show that more than 98% of the adenosine remained entrapped/associated with the chitosan nanoparticles for at least 120 hours in PBS (pH 7.4).

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Persistent root canal pathogens are one of the main causes of endodontic treatment failure. These pathogens are usually isolated in areas within the root canals that are inaccessible to mechanical instrumentation, chemical irrigants and medicaments resulting in incomplete sterilization of the root canal system. Furthermore, the development of resistant microbial species renders it difficult to disinfect the root canal system using commonly available root canal irrigants and intra-canal medicaments. Intra-canal medicaments are antimicrobial agents that are placed inside the root canal system in order to eliminate the remaining microorganisms that persist after mechanical instrumentation and irrigation. However, their antimicrobial efficacy is effective only against some of the root canal pathogens. Furthermore, the presence of tissue inhibitory factors such as dentine powder and serum albumine within the root canal system inhibits their antimicrobial activity. The use of nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents has recently attracted considerable attention especially in the medical field as a result of their unique antibacterial properties. These properties include their ability to use multiple mechanisms to eradicate microbial cells and their low potentiality to produce microbial resistance. Polymeric nanoparticles such as chitosan nanoparticles (Ch-Np) gained significant interest as a result of their biocompatible and antimicrobial properties. In medicine, several vehicles were designed to carry these antibacterial nanoparticles. Zeolites (Ze) are microporous crystalline hydrated sodium aluminosilicate material that is utilized in the chemical sciences as a carrier for various nanoparticles.

Orientador: Marcia Regina de Moura Aouada / Resumo: Os resíduos gerados pelo descarte de embalagens produzidas por fontes não biodegradáveis vêm crescendo a cada ano e constitui um grande problema do ponto de vista ambiental. Uma das formas encontradas para amenizar o problema consiste no desenvolvimento de embalagens biodegradáveis obtidas através de polímeros naturais. No entanto, estas embalagens apresentam algumas propriedades desfavoráveis, como por exemplo, baixas propriedades de barreira e baixa resistência mecânica, dificultando, assim, sua utilização. Boa parte dos resíduos plásticos gerados é produzida pela indústria de alimentos, o que vem impulsionando pesquisas, principalmente, no desenvolvimento de filmes comestíveis. Vários grupos de polímeros naturais têm sido estudados para a formação dos filmes, dentre eles, os polissacarídeos merecem destaque. Uma das formas reportadas na literatura para melhorar as propriedades de filmes à base de polissacarídeos inclui a adição de nanoestruturas às matrizes poliméricas. O presente trabalho visou à produção de filmes comestíveis baseados em pectina e polpas de frutas. Nanopartículas de quitosana foram sintetizadas e adicionadas às matrizes poliméricas com o objetivo de melhorar as propriedades dos filmes. As nanopartículas apresentaram tamanho médio de 110 nm e potencial zeta em torno de +40 mV. Os filmes foram produzidos por “casting” e apresentaram características satisfatórias, como: manuseabilidade, homogeneidade e continuidade. Através das análises mecânicas - tensão... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Mestre

A Paracoccidioidomicose (PCM) é uma doença que atinge primariamente os pulmões, podendo também ocorrer de forma sistêmica e, é causada pelo fungo termo dimórfico Paracoccidioides spp. Os principais medicamentos para o tratamento da PCM são quimioterápicos poliênicos, compostos sulfanilamídicos e os azóis. Uma possível ferramenta para tratar e/ ou prevenir a PCM é o uso de vacinas para a geração de resposta imune principalmente do tipo Th1, produtora de IFN-gama, citocina com papel importante para o controle da doença. Um dos candidatos vacinais mais estudados para a PCM, é a vacina com base no peptídeo P10, formado por 15 resíduos de aminoácidos (aa), derivado da glicoproteína de 43 kDa de P. brasiliensis. Com o objetivo de se aprimorar o efeito imunomodulador do peptídeo P10, foi proposto neste trabalho a sua complexação com nanopartículas poliméricas de quitosana. A quitosana foi escolhida em função das suas características físico-químicas e biológicas tais como biocompatibilidade e mucoadesividade, características essenciais para o trabalho em questão. As nanopartículas de quitosana complexadas com o peptídeo P10 em diferentes concentrações foram produzidas a partir da técnica de gelificação iônica e, posteriormente caracterizadas em função do seu tamanho, índice de poli dispersão (PDI) e potencial Zeta (potencial Z). A eficiência de encapsulação foi avaliada utilizando-se o Qubit™ Protein Assay Kit e a toxicidade verificada por ensaios de hemólise e viabilidade celular de macrófagos murinos, da linhagem J774.16. As nanopartículas apresentaram tamanho médio de 220 nm, PDI abaixo de 0,5 e potencial Zeta de + 20 mV. A eficiência de encapsulação foi maior que 90% e não houve citotoxicidade nas primeiras 24 horas. O tratamento com as nanopartículas contendo diferentes concentrações do peptídeo P10 foi eficiente na redução da carga fúngica pulmonar, durante a PCM murina. Estes resultados mostram que a nanopartícula é estável e apresenta as características físico-químicas desejáveis para este trabalho, sendo elas capazes de reduzir de 4 a 20 vezes a concentração usual padrão do peptídeo P10. / Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM) is a disease caused by the thermo-dimorphic fungal species of Paracoccidioides spp. that mainly affects the lungs and can also occur systemically. The main drugs for the treatment of PCM are polyene chemotherapeutics, sulfanilamidic compounds and azoles. As an alternative for treating and / or preventing PCM, the use of vaccines has been explored, allowing the generation of a Th1-type immune response, with IFN-γproduction, important for the control of the disease. One of the most studied vaccine candidates is the P10 peptide-based vaccine, consisting of 15 amino acids (aa), which is derived from the 43 kDa glycoprotein of P. brasiliensis. In order to improve the immunomodulatory effect of P10 peptide, the complexation with chitosan polymer nanoparticles is being proposed in this project. Chitosan was chosen according to its physico-chemical and biological characteristics such as: biocompatibility and mucoadhesiveness, essential characteristics for this project. The nanoparticles complexed with P10 peptide at different concentrations were produced from the ionic gelation technique and their size, poly dispersion index (PDI), and Zeta potential (Z potential) were analyzed. The encapsulation efficiency was assessed using the Qubit™ Protein Assay Kit and the toxicity verified by hemolysis and cell viability assays with murine J774.16 macrophages. The nanoparticles obtained presented a size of approximately 220 nm, PDI below 0.5 and Zeta potential of approximately + 20 mV. The encapsulation efficiency was greater than 90% and there was no cytotoxicity in the first 24 hours. Treatment with the nanoparticles containing different concentrations of P10 peptide was efficient in reducing lung fungal load during murine PCM. These results show that the nanoparticle is stable and presents the physicochemical characteristics desirable in this project, being able to reduce from 4 to 20 the usual standard concentration of the peptide P10 peptide.

Master of Science / Department of Entomology / Kristopher S. Silver / Kun Yan Zhu / The yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, is a significant vector of several viral diseases, including Zika, dengue fever, yellow fever, and chikungunya. Since vaccines are not currently available for these viruses, control of the disease vectors by using insecticides is the most common practice for preventing disease. As a result, Ae. aegypti has developed resistance against many of the most commonly used insecticides, including organophosphates and pyrethroids. The rise in resistance in vector mosquitoes requires the search for new control strategies, such as RNA interference (RNAi), to manage mosquito populations. Vacuolar H[sup plus]+-ATPase (V-ATPase), a multi-subunit enzyme involved in many cellular processes, including membrane energization, acidification of organelles, and entry of dengue virus into the cytoplasm, is a potential target for RNAi, though little is known about its genetic structure or expression patterns in Ae. aegypti. In this study, I performed genome-wide surveys to identify the genes encoding different subunits of the V-ATPase protein complex, partially characterized the molecular properties and expression patterns of selected V-ATPase subunit genes, and tested the feasibility of using oral-based delivery of nanoparticles formed from double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and chitosan to suppress the expression of selected V-ATPase subunit genes in Ae. aegypti. My genome-wide surveys revealed that Ae. aegypti V-ATPase consists of 13 different subunits (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, a, c, c”, d, e) encoded by 14 genes. Analysis of exon-intron arrangements for each gene demonstrated that each V-ATPase subunit gene has between one (subunit c) and 12 (subunit C) exons, with most genes (11) having 3 to 6 exons. Subsequent phylogenetic analysis of the deduced amino acid sequences of each subunit showed that V-ATPase subunits A, B, C, F, G, H, and a exhibited high levels of conservation among all the examined species, but subunits D, E, c, c”, d, and e showed high conservation only among dipteran species. Analysis of the expression profiles in different tissues and developmental stages of three specific V-ATPase subunits (A, D, and H) showed that whereas the expression of these genes varied between tissues and developmental stages, the patterns of expression of subunits A, D, and H were very similar. The highest mRNA expression level was observed in Malpighian tubules in fourth-instar larvae. Interestingly, expression of subunits A, D, or H in different tissues of adults was highest in male hindgut versus Malpighian tubules in females. Feeding mosquito larvae with chitosan nanoparticles made with dsRNA complementary to subunits A, D, or H resulted in significant suppression of mRNA transcript levels of each of these subunits. Peak suppression of V-ATPase A, D, or H transcripts occurred on the fifth day, where the gene transcript level was suppressed by 66.0, 27.3, or 70.4%, respectively, as compared with those of the control. Additionally, feeding of dsRNA/chitosan nanoparticles targeting subunit D caused mortality starting on day 3, with cumulative larval mortality reaching 14.8% on the sixth day. These results suggest that oral delivery of dsRNA/chitosan nanoparticles can substantially suppress target gene expression in Ae. aegypti larvae. However, increasing RNAi efficiency in targeting V-ATPase subunit genes in mosquito larvae appears to be necessary in order to obtain higher larval mortality using oral delivery of dsRNA/chitosan nanoparticles.

High grade gliomas remain a devastating disease, for which a curative therapy is virtually absent. The high medical need is unmet by novel treatment strategies and advances in chemo-and radiotherapy. Patients diagnosed for GBM face a median survival of 15 months after maximal standard-of-care therapy, and relapse is often observed due to micro-metastasis in the direct environment of resection. In part, current treatment modalities such as chemo-and immunotherapy are hampered in their efficacy due to the specialized TME. This area is adequately equipped to withstand the cytotoxic attack of chemo- and immunotherapy. Therefore, we hypothesized that modulation of the TME could decrease these defense mechanisms, and increase susceptibility to tumor lysis.In this respect, we focused on Gal-1 as an ideal target to modulate the TME in the context of GBM. Gal-1 exerts multiple tumor promoting functions. From pre-clinical research, we have learned that Gal-1 is an important mediator for the proliferation and migration of tumor cells, moreover Gal-1 could also promote angiogenesis in the TME, providing nutrients and oxygen for GBM to grow. Gal-1 also maintains the inherent defense mechanisms to chemo and immunotherapy. Gal-1 is crucial for the resistance mechanisms to TMZ by altering the EPR stress response. Moreover, and most important for our purposes, Gal-1 is also a crucial immune suppressor in the TME, which can induce apoptosis in activated T cells, and recruit Tregs. To target Gal-1 in the TME would be clinically most relevant if this could be performed via a non-invasive treatment modality. Therefore, we developed a nanoparticle complex that could deliver siGal-1 from the nasal cavity directly to the CNS, and even the TME. This nose-to-brain delivery bypasses systemic routes, with a higher (and more selective) local bioavailability in the CNS. The major pharmaceutical excipient in this nanoparticle complex consists of chitosan polymers. These polymers are highly interesting agents to promote nose-to-brain delivery due their muco-adhesive and epithelial barrier modulation properties. When applying these particles in vitro on GBM cells, a solid decrease of Gal-1 was noted, and the epithelial modulatory properties were confirmed. Furthermore, we observed a rapid transport from the nasal cavity to the brain upon intranasal administration of a highly-concentrated chitosan nanoparticle siGal-1 suspension and we could even observe the sequence-specific cleavage of Gal-1 mRNA, and a decrease of Gal-1 in the TME. This Gal-1 reduction could modulate the TME from immune suppression to immune activation, as demonstrated by decrease in suppressor cells, and increased stage of activation in rejective immune cells. Moreover, due to decreased Gal-1, also angiogenesis was alleviated, and a reduced size in vasculature was observed, mimicking a morphological vessel normalisation. Reversing the immune and vascular contexture of the TME by Gal-1 reduction seemed a prerequisite to increase the efficacy of TMZ, DC vaccination and PD-1 blocking. In combination experiments, we noticed that siGal-1 on top of these treatments, could further increase the efficiency of chemo and immunotherapy. The findings presented in this thesis can serve as a proof of concept for the feasibility to modulate and re-orchestrate the TME of GBM via intranasal administration. The intranasal administration of siGal-1 could represent a valuable clinically translational treatment to increase the efficiency of chemo- and immunotherapy for GBM patients. In our research facilities, a phase 0 as a first-in-human trial is actively pursued. / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques (Pharmacie) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Línguas eletrônicas constituídas de filmes nanoestruturados depositados sobre eletrodos metálicos, e empregando a técnica de espectroscopia de impedância como princípio de detecção, vêm apresentando excelentes resultados para a diferenciação de substâncias que constituem os paladares básicos e na detecção de impurezas em amostras líquidas. A principal limitação para o uso comercial é a necessidade da substituição das unidades sensoriais do arranjo, que necessita de recalibração. Nesta tese introduzimos um novo arranjo de unidades sensoriais, constituídos de eletrodos de cromo eletrodepositados, que não necessitam de filmes finos. Usando arranjos de cinco ou dez unidades sensoriais nominalmente idênticas, obtivemos uma língua eletrônica capaz de detectar paladares básicos e íons de cobre em água em concentrações abaixo de 1μM. As diferenças nas respostas elétricas dos eletrodos são oriundas das diferenças na sua morfologia. A alta sensibilidade apresentada foi explorada na análise de vinhos e amostras de águas coletadas de vários rios e lagos. Similarmente às línguas eletrônicas com filmes nanoestruturados, o arranjo sensorial de eletrodos de cromo foi capaz de distinguir vinhos de uma mesma varietal e produtor, mas de diferentes safras, e de um mesmo produtor e safra, mas de diferentes varietais. Tentamos também melhorar o desempenho das línguas eletrônicas combinando unidades constituídas de filmes finos de quitosana e poli(o-etoxianilina). Apesar do interesse nas propriedades advindas da interação entre esses materiais, especialmente quando a quitosana foi utilizada na forma de nanopartículas, o desempenho foi similar ao da língua eletrônica contendo eletrodos de cromo sem filmes. / Electronic tongues based on nanostructured films and employing impedance spectroscopy as the principle of detection have proven excellent to distinguish between basic tastes and detect trace amounts of impurities in liquid samples. The main limitation for a commercial use, though, is the need to replace the sensing units of the sensor array, which requires recalibration, owing to the relatively poor stability of the nanostructured films. In this thesis we introduce a new arrangement for the sensing units, which are produced from electrodeposited chrome electrodes, with no need to adsorb an organic film. Using an array with 5 or 10 nominally identical chrome electrodes, we obtained an electronic tongue capable of detecting basic tastes and copper ions in water down to the 1μM level. The differences in electrical properties for the electrodes arose from differences in morphology. Furthermore, this high sensitivity could be exploited in the analysis of wines, and water samples collected from various rivers and lakes. Similarly to electronic tongues made with nanostructured films, the sensor array with electrodeposited chrome electrodes was capable of distinguishing wines from the same grape and producer, but different vintages, or from the same producer and vintage but different grapes. We also attempted to optimize the performance of electronic tongues by combining sensing units made of chitosan and poly(o-ethoxyaniline). In spite of the interesting properties deriving from the interaction between these components, especially when chitosan nanoparticles were used, the performance of the sensor array was similar to that of the electronic tongue obtained with bare chrome electrodes.

Neste trabalho foi investigada a ação fotodinâmica dos pró-fármacos 5-ALA e 8-ALA incorporados em nanopartículas de quitosana, através da incidência de luz em células de melanoma, utilizando sinergicamente a Eletroquimioterapia e a Terapia Fotodinâmica. O ácido 5-aminolevulínico (5-ALA) e seus ésteres derivados são precursores metabólicos da protoporfirina IX (PpIX) e apresentam uma penetração limitada no estrato córneo. Portanto, o objetivo desse trabalho foi desenvolver, caracterizar e avaliar o efeito fotodinâmico das nanopartículas de quitosana contendo os pró-fármacos 5-ALA e seu éster derivado 8-ALA e investigar a produção efetiva de PpIX. Concomitantemente, o efeito sinérgico da Eletroquimioterapia (ECT) com a TFD também foi estudado com a finalidade de aumentar a permeação dos fármacos fotossensibilizantes através da pele, aumentando a eficiência da TFD no tratamento de neoplasias cutâneas. As nanopartículas de quitosana foram obtidas pelo método de gelificação ionotrópica, produzindo nanopartículas em tamanho nanométrico (636,0 nm ± 6,5), com uma distribuição de tamanho homogênea (0,37), além de apresentar um potencial zeta significantemente positivo + 35,3 mV (± 2,21). Seu perfil de liberação e capacidade de incorporação de 80% dos pró-fármacos também foi determinado. Os estudos de citotoxicidade na ausência de luz demonstraram o caráter biocompatível das nanopartículas de quitosana desenvolvidas, assim como a produção significativa de PpIX e foi possível comprovar o excelente efeito fototóxico da formulação desenvolvida. Os estudos de sinergismo da ECT com a TFD comprovaram que a combinação das nanopartículas de quitosana contendo os pró-fármacos, com aplicação de microcorrentes de 400 ?A e dose de luz de 3 J/cm2, nestas condições apresentou uma morte celular significativa. / This study investigated the photodynamic action of the prodrug 5-ALA and 8-ALA into chitosan nanoparticles, through the light incidence in melanoma cells, using synergistically the Electrochemotherapy and Photodynamic Therapy. The 5- aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) and its ester derivatives are metabolic precursors of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) and have a limited penetration in the stratum corneum. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop, characterize and evaluate the photodynamic effect of chitosan nanoparticles containing the prodrug 5-ALA and its ester derivative 8-ALA. Besides, was investigated the effective production of PpIX. Concomitantly, the synergistic effect of Electrochemotherapy (ECT) with PDT was also studied for the purpose of increasing the permeation of drugs through the skin, enhancing the efficiency of the PDT in the treatment of skin cancers. Chitosan nanoparticles were obtained by the ionotropic gelation producing nanoparticles in nanosize (636.0 ± 6.5 nm), with a homogenous size distribution (0.37), and present a significantly positive zeta potential + 35.3 mV (± 2.21). Release profile and ability to incorporate 80% of the prodrug was also determined. The cytotoxicity studies demonstrated in the absence of light the biocompatible nature of chitosan nanoparticles developed, as well as the significant production of PpIX and it was possible to demonstrate the excellent effect of phototoxic formulation developed. The synergism studies of ECT with PDT have shown that the combination of chitosan nanoparticles containing prodrugs, applying microcurrents 400 ?A and light dose of 3 J/cm2 under these conditions showed a significant cell death.

Vaccination plays a very important part in daily life. It is essential to get vaccinated at an early age. The conventional parented method used is not always effective and not cost efficient. It requires qualified personnel and sterile conditions for administration of the vaccines. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of chitosan, N-trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC) and Emzaloid™ particles on the local and systemic immune response of mice after oral vaccination with Diphtheria toxoid (DT). The different formulations used were chitosan microparticles (± 10 µm), chitosan nanoparticles (± 400 nm), TMC microparticles (± 5 µm), Emzaloid microparticles (± 4 µm) and Emzaloid nanoparticles (± 500 nm). All of these formulations proved to be very good delivery systems and can entrap large amounts of the antigen. Balb/c mice were used to determine the local and systemic immune response of these formulations. The mice were vaccinated orally on three consecutive days in week 1 and 3 with 40 Lf DT per week with a total volume of 300 µl. Blood samples were taken from the mice and analysed for a systemic immune response (IgG). The same mice were used to determine the local immune response (IgA). Faeces were collected from each mouse on day 1, 3, 4, 6, 14 and 20 for analysis. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to determine IgG and IgA titers. It can be concluded that chitosan nanoparticles was the only formulation with a higher response than that of the currently used vaccine. Emzaloid nanoparticles showed no significant difference in response when compared to the currently used vaccine. All the other formulations showed a much smaller response than that of the conventional method of vaccination. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Vaccination plays a very important part in daily life. It is essential to get vaccinated at an early age. The conventional parented method used is not always effective and not cost efficient. It requires qualified personnel and sterile conditions for administration of the vaccines. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of chitosan, N-trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC) and Emzaloid™ particles on the local and systemic immune response of mice after oral vaccination with Diphtheria toxoid (DT). The different formulations used were chitosan microparticles (± 10 µm), chitosan nanoparticles (± 400 nm), TMC microparticles (± 5 µm), Emzaloid microparticles (± 4 µm) and Emzaloid nanoparticles (± 500 nm). All of these formulations proved to be very good delivery systems and can entrap large amounts of the antigen. Balb/c mice were used to determine the local and systemic immune response of these formulations. The mice were vaccinated orally on three consecutive days in week 1 and 3 with 40 Lf DT per week with a total volume of 300 µl. Blood samples were taken from the mice and analysed for a systemic immune response (IgG). The same mice were used to determine the local immune response (IgA). Faeces were collected from each mouse on day 1, 3, 4, 6, 14 and 20 for analysis. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to determine IgG and IgA titers. It can be concluded that chitosan nanoparticles was the only formulation with a higher response than that of the currently used vaccine. Emzaloid nanoparticles showed no significant difference in response when compared to the currently used vaccine. All the other formulations showed a much smaller response than that of the conventional method of vaccination. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.