<p>U doktorskoj disertaciji je vršeno ispitivanje uticaja kontekstualnih faktora na sprovođenje &bdquo;co-benefits&ldquo; politika u urbanim sredinama zemalja u razvoju. Posmatrajući razvoj biciklističkog saobraćaja kao vrstu jedne takve politike, vršena je analiza uticaja političkih, društveno-ekonomskih, institucionalnih i organizacionih faktora na procese planiranja i implementacije &bdquo;co-benefits&ldquo; politika. Takođe, u sklopu istraživačkih aktivnosti sproveden je konkretan infrastrukturni &bdquo;co-benefits&ldquo; projekat i razvijen je okvir za evaluaciju ekoloških i drugih benefita.</p> / <p>Doctoral dissertation investigates influence of contextual factors on<br />implementation of &bdquo;co-benefits&ldquo; policies within urban areas of developing<br />countries. Taking bicycle traffic as one of such policies, the influences of<br />political, socio-economic, institutional and organisational factors on planning<br />and implementation of &ldquo;co-benefits&rdquo; policies had been analysed. Also, an<br />infrastructure &ldquo;co-benefits&rdquo; project and framework for evaluation of ecological<br />and other benefits have been developed.</p>

Air pollution—both indoor and outdoor—results in more deaths and diseases in India than in any other country in the world. The first chapter in this dissertation explores why despite profoundly negative health consequences of indoor air pollution, most rural Indian households cook using traditional biomass fuel. Among many factors that contribute to households’ continued use of solid fuels, we focus on one: women’s intra-household status. We exploit Indian son preference: having a girl first child lowers women’s status relative to having a boy first child, and is therefore associated with lower likelihood of using clean fuel. This effect is found throughout the wealth distribution, and is not concentrated among households in states with a high child sex ratio or households where women have some education. The second chapter focuses on outdoor air pollution in India. We use a general equilibrium model of Indian economy to quantify the spillovers from a carbon tax on fossil fuels to local air quality and the health outcomes in urban India. We estimate that a $10/ton of Carbon tax on all fossil fuels will reduce CO2 emission by 10.7% from business-as-usual and save nearly 0.3 million urban lives from pollution related deaths while adding 0.2 percent to the GDP over the three decades from 2003 to 2030. We get this double dividend from carbon tax if the tax revenue is used to reduce existing distortionary taxes. Carbon tax is more progressive if the revenue is repatriated to households, but the GDP is slightly smaller than the base case under this regime. In the third chapter, we present the first VSL estimates from India using hedonic wage method with worker and job characteristics data from Employment and Unemployment Survey of India (EUS)—a large nationally representative survey that has not been used in this literature before. We estimate VSL of an average low-skilled urban Indian worker to be about $85,000 in 2004-05 (about 65 times the annual wage) at 2010 constant prices. Our estimates of VSL and VSL-to-income ratio are much lower than all previous estimates from India. Comparisons with estimates from other developing countries like China and Taiwan, however, suggest that our estimates are more reasonable. Our VSL estimate, if reliable, sets a lower threshold for investment in environment and public safety projects that can be justified using cost-benefit criteria.

This study uses the Simplified International Model of agricultural Prices, Land use and the Environment, on a Grid (SIMPLE-G­), a partial equilibrium model of agricultural production, to explore how the scale and scope of environmental quality markets influence farm-level production decisions and market performance. I simulate how permit trading affects producers’ input use decisions, and ultimately pollution emissions, by modifying the supply nest structure of the model to include water quality permits as an additional output from agricultural production. Conservation practices improving water quality may also result in ecosystem co-benefits (e.g., reduced greenhouse gas emissions and habitat provision). Hence, I extend SIMPLE-G to quantify these co-benefits and simulate the effects of allowing conservationist producers to “stack” permits (i.e., to supply multiple permit types for each co-benefit). I find that, overall, permit production increases with the scale and scope of the markets. <a>At the smallest market size</a>—which allows trading only within 8-digit hydrological unit code watersheds—unintended policy implications arise as the stacked markets cause one conservation practice to crowd out the other. Meanwhile, the largest market—which allows trading across the Chesapeake Bay Watershed—produces nitrogen permits more efficiently which may lead to less of the secondary permits in comparison to other market configurations. The results of this study support the Environmental Protection Agency’s urging of the expansion of the scale and scope of ecosystem markets.

[pt] A integração e computação de co-benefícios da preservação de ecossistemas florestais é pré-condição para o sucesso, eficiência e sustentabilidade de longo prazo de iniciativas de REDD+. Inclusive para atingir reduções de emissões em larga escala e de forma permanente, é fundamental que as iniciativas de REDD+ promovam uma ampla gama de benefícios sociais, ambientais e de governança. Com base em uma concepção holística de integridade ambiental, o presente trabalho deseja oferecer contribuições sobre a definição de co-benefícios, sua tipificação e potenciais indicadores que podem ser utilizados para integrá-los e contabilizá-los na operacionalização de iniciativas de REDD+. / [en] The integration and accounting of co-benefits of forest ecosystem preservation is a precondition for the long-term success, efficiency, and sustainability of REDD + initiatives. Even to achieve large-scale and permanent reductions of emissions, it is critical that REDD+ initiatives promote a broad range of social, environmental and governance benefits. Based on a holistic conception of environmental integrity, the present paper offers contributions on the definition of co-benefits, their typification and potential indicators that can be used for their integration and accounting in the operationalization of REDD + initiatives.

Having been running for over 10 years, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is considered an innovative and successful mitigation initiative. CDM has the dual aims of helping industrialised countries achieve compliance with their emission limitation and reduction commitments in a cost-effective way, while simultaneously assisting developing countries in sustainable development. This thesis does a comprehensive analysis of the dual aims of CDM and is intended to assist in discussions about the post-2012 regime regarding CDM. To analyse the aim of assisting mitigation in a cost-effective way, the prices of certified emission reductions (CERs) on the international carbon market was studied and the provision of CDM was tested by comparing the amount of CERs with the mitigation commitments of the Annex I countries. It was found that CDM plays an important role in maintaining the international carbon price at a low level and that the total amount of CERs alone had already reached up to 52.70% of the entire mitigation commitments of industrialized countries by the end of 2010 and was continuing to grow before 2012. A theoretical analysis of the impacts of CDM showed that CDM has a double mitigation effect in both developing countries and industrialised countries, without double counting at present. A quantitative evaluation of the effects of China’s CDM projects on China’s total emissions showed that the contribution of CDM projects to limiting total emissions is small due to the dominance of fossil fuels, but CDM’s role in stimulating renewable energy is significant, e.g. about 11% of hydropower and 93% of wind power was generated by CDM projects in 2010. The results provide strong evidence in support of CDM’s contribution under the current Kyoto Protocol mitigation regime. To analyse the aim of promoting sustainable development in developing countries, popular methods such as checklist, Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) and Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) were reviewed, a CBA of co-benefits of China’s CDM projects was carried out, and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method was applied in an experimental study. The results showed that every method has its own advantages and problems. In other words, neither the CBA of co-benefits nor the AHP method alone is able to assess sustainable development in a completely satisfactory way. Currently, a bottom-up approach through engaging local stakeholders in CDM design and approval, combining a mandatory monitoring and evaluation of co-benefits, could be more effective for safeguarding local sustainable development than any consolidated standards. The future of the CDM is still unclear mainly due to uncertainties about the post-2012 regime. This thesis shows that there is more than sufficient reason for CDM to continue after 2012. Industrialised countries in general should make more substantial efforts to reduce their domestic emissions rather than blaming developing countries. For developing countries, learning from the CDM projects and further applying the knowledge, technology and experiences to their domestic development agenda could be more valuable than the present CER revenues. CDM can be an important starting point for developing countries to gradually make incremental greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction and limitation efforts. / QC 20110817

Les changements climatiques représentent une menace majeure pour la santé publique au Canada et ailleurs. À l’inverse, l’action climatique pourrait procurer des éventuels co-bénéfices santé. Bien que la recherche en matière de communication sur les changements climatiques soit en plein essor, seulement une poignée d’études ont exploré comment les médias relient les changements climatiques à leurs impacts sur la santé humaine. Les médias peuvent jouer un rôle clef, de par leur capacité à modeler la compréhension du public ainsi que son adhésion à des politiques nouvelles. Cette analyse de contenu examine la couverture des impacts sanitaires des changements climatiques dans le journal canadien The Globe and Mail entre 2008 et 2020. Notre étude suggère que le cadrage santé demeure sous-utilisé à ce jour, et que les journalistes ne réussissent pas à faire des liens exhaustifs entre climat et santé. Lorsque la question est abordée, le contenu est le plus souvent imprécis ; sans risque sanitaire, facteur social médiateur ou population vulnérable identifiés. Les co-bénéfices santé émanant de l’action climatique peuvent convier des émotions positives et ainsi inciter davantage à un changement comportemental. Malgré tout, ils demeurent rarement mentionnés. Tandis que des études précédentes montraient que les professionnels de la santé sont les mieux équipés pour communiquer les risques, nous avons constaté que ce sont les membres de la société civile, la plupart n’ayant pas d’expertise médicale, qui sont les plus souvent cités dans les articles. Enfin, la pandémie de Covid-19 peut être décrite comme une opportunité manquée pour recadrer les changements climatiques, puisque notre étude démontre que le cadrage santé n’était pas plus utilisé en 2020 qu’auparavant. / Climate change represents a major threat to public health in Canada and elsewhere. Conversely, climate action could procure potential health co-benefits. Although research on climate communication is growing, only a few studies have explored how the media connect climate change to its impacts on human health. The media can play a key role in shaping people’s understanding of the issue as well as their support for policy change. This media content analysis investigates the coverage of climate change impacts on human health in the Canadian news outlet The Globe and Mail between 2008 and 2020. Our study suggests that the public health frame remains largely underutilized to this date, and that journalists fail to make comprehensive links between climate change and health. When the issue is addressed, the content is most often unprecise, with either no particular health risk, social mediating factor or vulnerable population identified. Climate action health co-benefits can convey positive emotions and induce greater behavior change. Yet, they are rarely mentioned. While previous studies have shown that health professionals are best equipped to communicate the risks, we found that members of civil society with no medical expertise were the most regularly cited individuals in the articles. Finally, the Covid-19 pandemic could be described as a missed opportunity to reframe climate change, as our study demonstrates that the public health frame was not more often used in 2020 than it was before.

Current research indicates that the potential risks associated with human-induced climate change are likely to increase in frequency and intensity. Although there have been several attempts, no effective international treaty or policy has been enacted by the United States with the purpose of combating this global issue. In the past decade, local climate action plans (CAPs) have emerged as a planning solution designed to reduce greenhouse emissions (GHGs). Previous studies have examined CAP attributes, but no research has focused solely on climate planning in politically conservative jurisdictions. This research finds that of 245 CAPs completed to date nationally, approximately 90 percent are located in communities identified as politically Democratic based on county level 2012 Presidential Election data. In order to expand climate planning in politically conservative communities, it is important evaluate the characteristics of CAPs in these communities. This thesis aims to fill the current research gap by analyzing CAPs and conducting stakeholder interviews in seven conservative communities. The central hypothesis is: Climate action plans adopted in conservative communities differ in motivations, type, and political backing, when compared to climate action plans in general. The findings of this case study indicate that CAPs created in conservative communities do not differ substantially from CAPs in general. However, the findings suggest political opposition is heightened in these communities. In addition, the evidence shows that in conservative communities: economic co-benefits are stressed, cost-saving measures are over emphasized, CAP terminology is altered, business community involvement is crucial, and state mandates motivate CAP creation. The results of this research are distilled into 12 lessons and best practices for planning practitioners, and establish a basis for future research focusing on the political nature of climate action planning.

<h2><br></h2> <p>This dissertation consists of distinct but related essays that delve into the impacts of changing economic conditions and climate mitigation policies on household consumption, health, and welfare outcomes. The first essay examines the effect of variations in economic factors, such as home values, on unhealthy consumption behaviors in the U.S. The second essay examines the distributional effects and possible health advantages of climate mitigation policies in India. The findings in this dissertation have significant implications for preventive health and environmental justice policies, particularly concerning vulnerable populations. </p> <p>The first essay of this dissertation investigates the impact of home value fluctuations on household tobacco and alcohol consumption in the U.S., specifically focusing on consumption based on homeownership status. First, we utilize high-frequency household transaction panel data and ZIP code-level home values to estimate the causal effect of home value fluctuations (or the housing wealth effect) on household tobacco and alcohol consumption for all U.S. households. Second, we predict household homeownership status by supplementing our primary household panel transaction data with a secondary household survey dataset; this allowed us to estimate the housing wealth effect separately for homeowners and renters. Home values are a leading economic indicator and effectively represent variation in housing wealth, whereas prior literature mainly focuses on lagging economic indicators, such as the unemployment rate. Housing wealth is a significant component of household net worth in the U.S. We leverage temporal and geographic fluctuations in household transactions and local home values to show that changes in housing wealth have a causal effect on household tobacco and alcohol consumption. Our findings show that declining home values increase tobacco and alcohol consumption among homeowners, with no effect on renters. Beer and cigarettes mainly drive this effect. Declining home values substantially increase annual consumption of nicotine, tar, carbon monoxide, and alcohol by volume, exacerbating public health concerns. In contrast, unemployment shocks increase tobacco and alcohol consumption among homeowners and decrease it among renters. The housing wealth effect is most pronounced among bubble states households, heavy-use consumers, low-income, and white households. The study emphasizes the importance of targeted policy interventions to mitigate the negative effects of fluctuations in housing wealth on unhealthy consumption, especially amid the current unpredictable economic environment and volatile real estate market. </p> <p>The second essay of this dissertation analyzes the distributional impacts of climate mitigation policies consistent with India’s 2030 Nationally Determined Contribution and 2070 net-zero target, using a dynamic global computable general equilibrium (CGE) model with heterogeneous Indian households. Specifically, we expand the CGE model to incorporate ten rural and ten urban household income deciles. Additionally, we link the CGE model with a global atmospheric source-receptor model to derive health co-benefits from reduced premature mortality due to lower air pollution. Several policy levers are considered in this study, including carbon pricing, enhanced coal consumption tax (or coal cess), and fossil subsidies phaseout. These are further combined with five alternative revenue recycling options. Our results suggest the potential welfare costs of such mitigation policies are rather moderate and do not exceed 0.5% over 2023-2050, not accounting for health and environmental co-benefits and damages avoided by successfully limiting global temperature rise to well below 2°C. However, health co-benefits from lower air pollution can potentially outweigh the mitigation costs. Combining carbon pricing and fossil subsidy removal is more efficient than carbon pricing alone, generating progressive medium-term welfare gains due to reduced market distortions. Raising coal cess rates is the least efficient policy. Inequality and distributional impacts vary significantly based on the chosen revenue recycling approach. Equal transfer of tax revenue across households proves to be the most efficient and equitable, followed by labor tax subsidies, leading to a Gini index and S20/S80 ratio reduction of 0.01%-1.7% and 0.1%-7%, respectively. Recycling revenues to stimulate green energy investments yields the least favorable distributional impacts and worsens inequality. Trade-offs exist between reducing inequality and fostering investment-driven economic growth when choosing revenue recycling options. Policymakers should prioritize policy mixes and revenue-recycling methods based on their objectives to effectively combat climate change while promoting sustainable growth and reducing income inequality in India. </p>