Aspect central de la vie sociale, la langue est un des marqueurs identitaires des plus prononcés. Elle marque non seulement l’identité individuelle et la cohésion collective mais elle peut être en même temps un élément de différenciation. Si l’on accepte alors que la langue, l’identité et la culture coïncident, que fait-on des communautés bilingues où le comportement linguistique est caractérisé par la mixité? Que peut-on dire d’individus qui choisissent de vivre dans deux dimensions identitaires, qui adhèrent à deux cultures et à deux langues ? Depuis les années 1970, de nombreuses études portant sur l’alternance des codes ont tenté de répondre à ces mêmes questions. Pourtant, les réponses fournies ne sont pas claires et il existe un écart visible entre les chercheurs. Certains analystes tels que Patrick Chamoiseau sont optimistes et prétendent que l’alternance codique permet un élargissement des horizons identitaires et un effondrement des frontières ethniques et langagières (Bernard 1994). Malgré le fait que le multiculturalisme et le multilinguisme sont à la mode, d’autres chercheurs tels que Roger Bernard, Charles Castonguay et Joshua Fishman nous rappellent que la mixité est souvent moins romantique qu’on ne le croit. Ils affirment que le métissage est un des facteurs qui mènent à l’assimilation et à l’extinction éventuelle de communautés linguistiques entières (Paré 2003). En nous servant d’un modèle comprenant six fonctions linguistiques principales (contextuelle, métaphorique, métalinguistique, référentielle, directive et expressive), nous nous interrogerons sur chacune de ces deux perspectives : d’une part, l’alternance en tant que source de clivage identitaire et de l’autre, le même phénomène en tant qu’épreuve de réconciliation. Les auteurs au centre de cette étude - soit Patrice Desbiens, Gérald Leblanc et Jean Babineau - sont parmi ceux qui ont choisi de raconter, de narrer leurs expériences en tant qu’individus bilingues. En écrivant la mixité comme ils la vivent, ces artistes élargissent le champ de notre littérature pour qu’elle puisse englober deux langues et deux cultures. Par leurs ouvrages, ils exigent que l’on se libère du discours « unilinguiste », que l’on s’éloigne de la norme contraignante et que l’on se permette de découvrir des histoires de ruptures et de relations dialogiques. Ainsi, nous avons choisi de privilégier un corpus littéraire représentatif des deux grandes communautés franco-canadiennes hors Québec : l’Ontario français et l’Acadie.

Aspect central de la vie sociale, la langue est un des marqueurs identitaires des plus prononcés. Elle marque non seulement l’identité individuelle et la cohésion collective mais elle peut être en même temps un élément de différenciation. Si l’on accepte alors que la langue, l’identité et la culture coïncident, que fait-on des communautés bilingues où le comportement linguistique est caractérisé par la mixité? Que peut-on dire d’individus qui choisissent de vivre dans deux dimensions identitaires, qui adhèrent à deux cultures et à deux langues ? Depuis les années 1970, de nombreuses études portant sur l’alternance des codes ont tenté de répondre à ces mêmes questions. Pourtant, les réponses fournies ne sont pas claires et il existe un écart visible entre les chercheurs. Certains analystes tels que Patrick Chamoiseau sont optimistes et prétendent que l’alternance codique permet un élargissement des horizons identitaires et un effondrement des frontières ethniques et langagières (Bernard 1994). Malgré le fait que le multiculturalisme et le multilinguisme sont à la mode, d’autres chercheurs tels que Roger Bernard, Charles Castonguay et Joshua Fishman nous rappellent que la mixité est souvent moins romantique qu’on ne le croit. Ils affirment que le métissage est un des facteurs qui mènent à l’assimilation et à l’extinction éventuelle de communautés linguistiques entières (Paré 2003). En nous servant d’un modèle comprenant six fonctions linguistiques principales (contextuelle, métaphorique, métalinguistique, référentielle, directive et expressive), nous nous interrogerons sur chacune de ces deux perspectives : d’une part, l’alternance en tant que source de clivage identitaire et de l’autre, le même phénomène en tant qu’épreuve de réconciliation. Les auteurs au centre de cette étude - soit Patrice Desbiens, Gérald Leblanc et Jean Babineau - sont parmi ceux qui ont choisi de raconter, de narrer leurs expériences en tant qu’individus bilingues. En écrivant la mixité comme ils la vivent, ces artistes élargissent le champ de notre littérature pour qu’elle puisse englober deux langues et deux cultures. Par leurs ouvrages, ils exigent que l’on se libère du discours « unilinguiste », que l’on s’éloigne de la norme contraignante et que l’on se permette de découvrir des histoires de ruptures et de relations dialogiques. Ainsi, nous avons choisi de privilégier un corpus littéraire représentatif des deux grandes communautés franco-canadiennes hors Québec : l’Ontario français et l’Acadie.

Many studies have shown that use of the target language second and/ or foreign language (in this case English) teaching has greatly improved students' learning, albeit, not all teachers use the target language exclusively but rather switch between the first and target language. This particular study has shown that the teacher in compulsory school does alternate between the target language and the first language for various reasons, while teachers in upper secondary school exclusively use the target language both within and outside the classroom and there are rarely any occurrences of codeswitching among students and teachers. The reasons for this are, because the content which has been taught has been too difficult for the students to understand, or the students have refused to interact in English with both their teacher and fellow students. The teachers' view on the matter tells us that even though they have tried to exclusively use the target language in the English classroom, it has not been working in the manner they wanted it to have. In order to gather data for this research, seven classroom observations have been carried out and to complement them interviews with three teachers have been conducted to get their view on the use of English in their own teaching and why they think codeswitching occurs among students and themselves.

This study explores the oral interaction between teachers and their students in university English as a foreign language classrooms in Mainland China with particular focus on teachers' codeswitching behaviours and students' reactions to these behaviours. Codeswitching in foreign or second language classrooms has been the subject of a great deal of research interest from the applied linguistics community in recent years, but patterns of codeswitching in "broadly communicative" classrooms have rarely been studied in great detail nor have students' strategic reactions to codeswitching been directly elicited from learners as a means of gauging the impact of teacher codeswitching. Moreover, there is a clear need to situate the debate about teacher codeswitching in a more rigorous theoretical framework. A case study approach best suited the aims of this research and two teachers were selected in an initial pha e (Phase 1) of the study because they conformed to a number of pedagogical and interaction-related criteria. In the main phase of the study data were elicited through a combination of systematic observation, stimulated recalls and teacher interviews. The codeswitching patterns of the two teachers were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. However, much greater emphasis is placed on the qualitative analysis of the codeswitching and students' reactions towards it. The findings show that the amount of codeswitching was relatively low but varied considerably by lesson. Most codeswitching was for medium-oriented lexical explanations. Students' reactions to their teachers' codeswitching varied by individual not by groups. The findings suggest an interesting pattern of variance between the two teachers in terms of their codeswitching behaviours and enrich our understanding of codeswitching in L2 classrooms and provide hypotheses that could be tested with larger samples. The findings also contribute to an understanding of the functions and consequences of codeswitching from the learners' perspective, which may contribute towards major advances in the field and have direct pedagogical implications.

This is a work done within the sociolinguistic field. The objective of this work was to describe Spanglish and Spanenska and how these language varieties arose. Which loanwords, code switching and calques are the most frequently used in Spanglish and in Spanenska. The aim has also been to look if there are any similarities or differences between the usage of Spanglish and Spanenska when the native language is changed into a bilingual language. If the words that are used in Spanglish have an equivalency in the words used in Spanenska.   Futhermore we have described how the usage of gramatical rules, lexical and functional words are practiced, to look if there are any similarities or differences and to find out if these similarities or differences affect the usage of Spanglish or Spanenska. We have also described the three different ways: code-switching, loanwords and calques which are used in Spanglish and Spanenska.

Using data from Arizona, United States, the present study seeks to further our understanding of lone other language items (LOLIs) in bilingual discourse and their status as either borrowings or codeswitches by measuring the degree of incorporation that can indicate a LOLI's status as a borrowing or codeswitching. To accomplish this aim, nouns from 40 sociolinguistic interviews from 8 Spanish monolingual speakers from Sonora, Mexico, 8 English monolingual speakers from Arizona, and 24 Spanish-English bilinguals from Arizona (from Sonoran families) are compared. Codeswitching can be defined as the "juxtaposition of sentences or sentence fragments, each of which is internally consistent with the morphological and syntactic (and optionally, phonological) rules of the language of its provenance" (Poplack, 1993, p. 255). Borrowing involves the incorporation of LOLIs from a donor language incorporated into a recipient language and need to be morphologically and syntactically adapted into the recipient language (Poplack, Sankoff, and Miller, 1988; Sankoff, Poplack, and Vanniarajan, 1990). Accordingly, the key difference between codeswitching and borrowing is that borrowings are morphosyntactically incorporated into the recipient language while codeswitches are not incorporated. It is important to note that in terms of LOLIs' status, phonological integration has been discarded for being too variable and therefore not a reliable factor in discerning one-item codeswitches from borrowings (Poplack and Sankoff, 1984; Poplack, Sankoff, and Miller, 1988). In order to measure the degree of incorporation that can in turn indicate the LOLI's status as a borrowing or a codeswitch, the present study applies a sociolinguistic comparative method to loanwords, following Poplack and Meechan (1995, 1998) by comparing nouns from Spanish (recipient language), nouns from English (donor language), and LOLIs from English in Spanish discourse. Since phonology has not been applied to the method of analysis, this study also seeks to explore if phonological integration is correlated to morphosyntactic integration of determiner realization of LOLIs. The results show, in accordance to previous studies, that the LOLIs overall act morphosyntactically like patrimonial Spanish words in terms of the variables that condition determiner usage. In terms of how phonological integration interacts with morphosyntactic integration, it does seem that the two correlate. LOLIs with Spanish morphology are more morphosyntactically similar to Spanish patrimonial nouns and LOLIs with English phonology are more morphosyntactically similar to English patrimonial nouns in both overall frequencies and the factors that condition determiner usage, leading to the hypothesis that LOLIs that are integrated phonologically are established borrowings and LOLIs that are not integrated phonologically are either codeswitches or nonce borrowings. We provide further evidence for this hypothesis by examining the pauses and false starts that are present before LOLIs with Spanish versus English phonology. The results indicate that LOLIs with English phonology are more often preceded with pauses and false starts than LOLIs with Spanish phonology. The findings of this study suggest that phonological integration is a factor that should be brought back to the discussion on discerning LOLIs' status as a borrowing or a codeswitch.

The very existence of intra-word codeswitching—of the type [w ML1 + ML2]; *[eat]eng + [-iendo]Spanish —has long been a point of contention in the language mixing literature (Poplack, 1980; Myers-Scotton, 1992; MacSwan, 2005). However, recent work by Alexiadou et al (2015) and Grimstad, Lohndal & Afarli (2014) has documented a number of empirical examples of such codeswitching in an American community of Heritage Norwegian-English speakers—crucially, in these examples, the lexical elements are English lexical roots and produced using English phonological rules but the suffix (i.e. morphology) attached to the lexical items is syntactically Norwegian—a clear and unambiguous example of intra-word codeswitching. These data will be the focus of investigation into intra-word codeswitching. MacSwan (2005) has argued that intra-word codeswitching is prohibited due to the inability of the human computational system to merge hierarchically ordered phonological systems from two or more languages; a prohibition characterized in his PF Disjunction Theorem. More recently, Alexiadou et al., (2015); Grimstad, Lohndal & Afarli, (2014) have exploited a model of Distributed Morphology to challenge the PF disjunction theorem and the ban on intra-word codeswitching it entails. A central goal of this thesis will be to compare, contrast and evaluate these two models of language mixing. It will be argued that this prohibition of intra-word language mixing may be overcome by appealing to a cognitive processes perspective (Sharwood-Smith & Truscott, 2014). A MOGUL processing prospective (Sharwood-Smith & Truscott, 2014) will be used to build upon previous approaches to language mixing in order to account for intra-word codeswitching. The modular architecture adopted by MOGUL allows for a molecular view of a lexical item; each module (i.e. phonological module, syntax module, conceptual module) produces a representation for a given form which is then interfaced to neighboring modules; the result is a chain of representations (i.e. PS + SS + CS) which constitutes a lexical item. Additionally, MOGUL incorporates several extra-linguistic cognitive mechanisms which play a role in language mixing. Of particular interest are the notions of goals and cognitive context. Following Sharwood-smith & Truscott (2016), goals are the central motivators for speech and action while cognitive context is taken to be the mentally internalized representation of an individual’s current environment (Sharwood-Smith & Truscott, 2014) as well as representing various intentions, perspectives, opinions, etc., an individual has regarding their environment (Van Dijk, 1997). To situate intra-word codeswitching into a MOGUL framework, much of MacSwan’s Minimalist account will be adopted, (i.e. codeswitching is accounted for via the union of grammar X and grammar Y; formally: {Gx ᴜ Gy}) while rejecting the PF Disjunction Theorem and, instead, adopting elements of Distributed Morphology (i.e. late insertion). It will be argued that cognitive context configures various executive control process (i.e. bilingual mode) to allow for the union of phonological systems between Lx and Ly. This analysis builds upon a larger body of language mixing research by synthesizing a Minimalist account of codeswitching with a cognitive processing framework to account for intra-word codeswitching; the MOGUL framework allows for these disparate elements to be synthesized. / Graduate

<p>This study explored the use of code-switching in Biology classes at high school level, how it is used in the teaching and learning situation and its effect on the learners' performance in the subject. Grade 11 was chosen as it precedes the last year at high school.</p>

<p>Världen idag blir mer och mer globaliserad och förmågan att kunna kommunicera på engelska efterfrågas i hög grad. Samhällets utveckling sätter även sin prägel på skolan där den muntliga kommunikationen betonas inom språkundervisningen idag.</p><p>Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur två engelsklärare på gymnasiet använder engelska i klassrummet. Undersökningen har granskat i vilken utsträckning lärarna använder sig muntligen av målspråket i sin engelskundervisning och deras förhållningssätt till sitt eget användande av engelska respektive svenska har studerats. Tidigare studier från det engelska klassrummet har visat att ju mer läraren talar engelska desto mer talar även eleverna engelska (Zilm refererad i Tornberg, 2005).</p><p>Målet har varit att dels studera i hur stor utsträckning de två lärarna talar engelska respektive svenska på lektionen men även att undersöka bakomliggande syften och motiv till språkvalet hos deltagarna. Då önskan har varit att studera både teori och praktik hos lärarna har observation och intervju lämpat sig bra som val av metod. De båda deltagarna har observerats under vardera tre engelsklektioner för att sedan bli intervjuade. På så sätt har bruket av språkval studerats och sedan följts upp av frågor kring lärarnas motiv för val av språk i engelskundervisningen.</p><p>Studien visar att en av lärarna utgick ifrån en tydlig undervisningsteori där ett av målen var att skapa en engelsk zon i klassrummet där engelskan skulle användas i så stor utsträckning som möjligt. Den andra deltagaren av studien hade inte en lika utpräglad teori för sin undervisning utan grundade den mer på ”sunt förnuft” och ”erfarenhet”. Resultatet av studien visade att den lärare som hade en uttalad teori bakom sin undervisning, talade engelska i betydligt större utsträckning än den som inte hade det. Det visade sig att eleverna också talade engelska i större utsträckning i detta klassrum, än hos den andra läraren.</p>

Världen idag blir mer och mer globaliserad och förmågan att kunna kommunicera på engelska efterfrågas i hög grad. Samhällets utveckling sätter även sin prägel på skolan där den muntliga kommunikationen betonas inom språkundervisningen idag. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur två engelsklärare på gymnasiet använder engelska i klassrummet. Undersökningen har granskat i vilken utsträckning lärarna använder sig muntligen av målspråket i sin engelskundervisning och deras förhållningssätt till sitt eget användande av engelska respektive svenska har studerats. Tidigare studier från det engelska klassrummet har visat att ju mer läraren talar engelska desto mer talar även eleverna engelska (Zilm refererad i Tornberg, 2005). Målet har varit att dels studera i hur stor utsträckning de två lärarna talar engelska respektive svenska på lektionen men även att undersöka bakomliggande syften och motiv till språkvalet hos deltagarna. Då önskan har varit att studera både teori och praktik hos lärarna har observation och intervju lämpat sig bra som val av metod. De båda deltagarna har observerats under vardera tre engelsklektioner för att sedan bli intervjuade. På så sätt har bruket av språkval studerats och sedan följts upp av frågor kring lärarnas motiv för val av språk i engelskundervisningen. Studien visar att en av lärarna utgick ifrån en tydlig undervisningsteori där ett av målen var att skapa en engelsk zon i klassrummet där engelskan skulle användas i så stor utsträckning som möjligt. Den andra deltagaren av studien hade inte en lika utpräglad teori för sin undervisning utan grundade den mer på ”sunt förnuft” och ”erfarenhet”. Resultatet av studien visade att den lärare som hade en uttalad teori bakom sin undervisning, talade engelska i betydligt större utsträckning än den som inte hade det. Det visade sig att eleverna också talade engelska i större utsträckning i detta klassrum, än hos den andra läraren.