L’impact des interactions hétérogènes entre la glace et les gaz traces sur la physico-chimie atmosphérique est à présent bien établi. A cause des propriétés spécifiques de la glace atmosphérique la quantification de cet impact reste encore très incertaine. Dans ce contexte nous avons étudié la solubilité et l’incorporation de formaldéhyde (H2CO) dans la glace, ce composé appartenant à la famille des composés organiques volatils qui ont une influence majeure sur la capacité oxydante de l’atmosphère. A l’aide de la spectrométrie de masse et de la spectroscopie d’absorption infrarouge par diode laser accordable, nous avons analysé la pression de vapeur de H2CO au-dessus des solutions aqueuses de formaldéhyde (10-3 à 30 mol %) à l’équilibre liquide vapeur à T = 295 K. L’analyse des solutions à faible concentration (<1mol %) a conduit à la détermination de la constante de Henry (H), paramètre thermodynamique important pour mieux comprendre la répartition de H2CO dans l’atmosphère. Cette étude a ensuite été étendue à T = 273 K, où une inversion dans la dépendance de H avec la température a été observée. Les mesures sur la phase gaz des solutions aqueuses concentrées ont servi à estimer la concentration de formaldéhyde dans les films de glace obtenus par co-condensation à basse température. Lors de l’analyse par la diffusion Raman, nous avons trouvé que lors du recuit sous une atmosphère d’azote, le mélange amorphe H2O-H2CO se transformait dans une structure clathrate à T = 148 K, même à faibles concentrations (~10-3 mol∙mol-1). L’azote gazeux s’adsorbe à la surface de la glace et semble agir par la suite comme un noyau de cristallisation pour la formation du clathrate de H2CO. / The impact of the heterogeneous interactions between the ice and the traces gases in the atmospheric physico-chemistry is now well established. However, because of the specific properties of the ice atmospheric crystals the quantification of this impact still remains very uncertain. In this context we have studied the solubility and the incorporation of the formaldehyde (H2CO) in the ice. This compound belongs to the group of volatile organic compounds (VOC), which have a major importance in atmospheric chemistry. By using mass spectrometry and infrared tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy we analyzed the partial pressure of H2CO above the aqueous formaldehyde solutions at vapor liquid equilibrium. This has been done at T = 295 K, on a range of concentration going from 10-3 to 30 mol%. The analysis of the solutions with a concentration < 1 mol % leads to the determination of the Henry’s law constant (H) of formaldehyde. This is a key thermodynamic parameter to better characterize the distribution of formaldehyde in the atmosphere. This study was extended at T = 273 K, where an inversion in the dependence of H with the temperature was observed. Measurements on the gas phase of the concentrated aqueous solutions are used to estimate the formaldehyde concentration trapped in the ice films obtained by co-condensation at low temperatures. By annealing the ice-formaldehyde films we have found by Raman scattering that formaldehyde forms a clathrate hydrate phase at 148 K, even at low H2CO concentrations. The gaseous N2 adsorbs at the porous ice surface and forms a clathrate that will act as nucleation seed for the H2CO clathrate formation.

In the year 2006, the energy performance directive 2002/91/EG was passed by the European Union, according to this directive the Swedish building code was supplemented by a key measure of energy use intensity (EUI). The implemented EUI equals some energy use within a building divided by its floor area and must be calculated in new housing estate and shown when renting or selling housing property. In order to improve the EUI, energy efficiency refurbishments could be implemented. Building energy simulation tools enables a virtual view a building model and can estimate the energy use before implementing any refurbishments. They are a powerful resource when determine the impact of the refurbishment measure. In order to obtain a correct model which corresponds to the actual energy use, some adjustments of the model are often needed. This process refers to as calibration. The used EUI has been criticized and thus, the first objective in this work was to suggest an alternative key measure of a buildings performance. The results showed that the currently used EUI is disfavoring some districts in Sweden. New housing estate in the far north must take more refined actions in order to fulfill the regulation demand, given that the users are behaving identical regardless where the house is located. Further, the suggested measure is less sensitive to the users’ behavior than the presently used EUI. It also has a significance meaning in building design as it relating the building shape and thermal properties and stating that extreme building shapes must undergo a stricter thermal construction rather than buildings that are more compact. Thus, the suggested key measure also creates a communication link between architects and the consultant constructors. The second objective of this thesis has been to investigate a concept of calibration using the data normally provided by energy bills, i.e. some monthly aggregated data. A case study serves to answer this objective, by using the building energy simulation tool IDA ICE 4.7 and a building located in Umeå, Sweden. The findings showed that the used calibration approach yielded a model considered as calibrated in eleven of twelve months. Furthermore, the method gives a closer agreement to the actual heat demand rather than using templates and standardized values. The major explanation of the deviation was influence of the users, but also that the case study building burden with large heat losses by domestic hot water circulation and thus, more buildings should be subjected to this calibration approach.

According to different sources, from forty to sixty percent of the overall energy generated in the world today is squandered in waste heat. The existing energy conversion technologies are either close to their efficiency limits or too costly to justify their implementation. Therefore, the development of new technological approaches for waste heat recovery is highly demanded. The field of thermoelectrics can potentially provide an inexpensive, clean and efficient solution to waste heat underutilization, given that a new type of thermoelectric materials capable of meeting those requirements are available. This thesis reports on strategies to optimize a thermoelectric efficiency (ZT) of conducting polymers, more specifically poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (Pedot). Conducting polymers constitute a special class of semiconductors characterized by low thermal conductivity as well as electrical conductivity and thermopower that can be readily modified by doping in order to achieve the best combination of thermoelectric parameters. Conducting polymers that have never previously been regarded as hypothetically compatible for thermoelectric energy conversion, can exhibit promising thermoelectric performance at moderate temperatures, which is a sought-after quality for waste heat recovery. A rather substandard thermoelectric efficiency of Pedot-Pss can be markedly improved by various secondary dopants whose addition usually improves polymer’s morphology accompanied by a drastic increase in electrical conductivity and, consequently, in ZT. In order to enable further enhancement in thermoelectric properties, the optimization of the charge carrier concentration is commonly used. The oxidation level of Pedot-Pss can be precisely controlled by electrochemical doping resulting in a tenfold increase of ZT. In contrast to Pedot-Pss, another conducting polymer Pedot-Tos exhibits superior thermoelectric performance even without secondary doping owning to its partially crystalline nature that allows for an improved electronic conduction. With the aid of a strong electron donor, positively doped Pedot-Tos gets partially reduced reaching the optimum oxidation state at which its thermoelectric efficiency is just four times smaller than that of Be2Te3 and the highest among all stable conducting polymers. The downsides associated with chemical doping of Pedot-Tos such as doping inhomogeneity or chemical dopants air sensitivity can be surmounted if the doping level of Pedot-Tos is controlled by acidity/basicity of the polymer. This approach yields similar maximum thermoelectric efficiency but does not necessitate inert conditions for sample preparation. Optimized Pedot-Tos/Pedot-Pss can be functionalized as a p-type material in organic thermogenerators (OTEG) to power low energy electronic devices. If printed on large areas, OTEGs could be used as an alternative technique for capturing heat discarded by industrial processes, households, transportation sector or any natural heat sources for electricity production.

Adapting pipes are a significant part of any pipe-line network and they are the sources of substantial hydraulic losses. They are designed for a manufacturing simplicity, regardless of flow. This paper concerns with lowering of hydraulic losses of adapting pipes by means of the shape optimization. Several methods of a mathematical optimization are tested and due to the complexity of the task and the need of the computational distribution among several computers, the gradient based algorithm is used. These methods loop together with a CFD software then automatically explore the design space. Several optimizations of diffusers with different opening angles, shape parameterizations and boundary conditions are made for the better insight on hydraulic losses. In three chapters there is description of development of parametric description of bend by means of Bezier surfaces. At the end optimum shape is found with hydraulic losses were decreased about 22%, which was not validated by experiment. In the final chapter is application of developed software on the shape optimization of Kaplan draft tube.

This study analyzed the ability of computational fluid dynamic software to accurately predict the flow coefficient of three bottom-load ball valves to develop a design which can accurately control flow rate.

Há pouca literatura acerca dos valores de referência das medidas de dispersão na pesquisa avícola bem como a relação entre tais medidas e o número de aves por repetição e número de repetições e ainda os efeitos de fatores intrínsecos à pesquisa sobre a variabilidade experimental. Com isso, objetiva-se estabelecer faixas de classificação das medidas de dispersão, bem como a relação entre medidas e o número de aves por repetição, número de repetições por tratamento, número de aves abatidas para avaliação de carcaças, número de ovos coletados para análises de qualidade e os efeitos de fatores intrínsecos à pesquisa sobre a variabilidade experimental. Os dados foram obtidos nos trabalhos publicados nos periódicos com classificação Qualis/CAPES nos estratos A1, A2, B1, B2 e B3, na área de zootecnia. Para a determinação das faixas de classificação das medidas de dispersão. Os dados foram correlacionados através da correlação de Spearman, dados qualitativos foram comparados pelo teste de Kruskal-Wallis. As faixas de classificação de coeficientes de variação podem ser utilizadas como balizador da qualidade e confiabilidade dos dados de experimentos com poedeiras comerciais e frangos de corte. A fase de vida ou estágio produtivo de poedeiras e frangos de corte devem ser levados em consideração na comparação de resultados experimentais. O erro padrão da média varia bastante nos parâmetros produtivos de poedeiras e frangos de corte e parece não ser uma medida de dispersão indicada para se comparar a precisão de diferentes experimentos, as suas faixas de classificação servem como referencial da frequência com que se encontra resultados. Coeficientes de variação e erros padrão da média de parâmetros produtivos de frangos de corte e de poedeiras comerciais são menores quanto maior o número de repetições e de aves por repetição. As aves amostradas para o abate nas avaliações de carcaça de frangos de corte devem apresentar o peso médio da parcela. O número de aves amostradas não influencia a variabilidade experimental. Os dias de amostragem para análises de qualidade de ovos não influenciam a variação aleatória. O número ideal de ovos amostrados está entre quatro e cinco ovos por repetição. Em frangos de corte a variabilidade aleatória para variáveis de produção são maiores para aves da linhagem Ross do que para aves da linhagem Cobb. Lotes mistos de frangos de corte apresentam maior variação de ganho de peso do que lotes de machos na fase de criação de um a 21 dias de idade. O rendimento de carcaça e a porcentagem de gordura abdominal apresentam menor variabilidade aleatória em lotes mistos do que em lotes de frangos machos. Para frangos de corte não há efeitos aleatórios que possam aumentar a variabilidade experimental em função da área disponível por ave. Para poedeiras quanto maior o período experimental menor tende a ser a variação aleatória. Poedeiras brancas apresentam menor variação aleatória dos parâmetros produtivos do que poedeiras vermelhas. O coeficiente de variação de parâmetros produtivos de poedeiras comerciais aumenta com o aumento da área disponível por ave. / There is little literature on the reference values of spread measures in poultry research and the relationship between such measures and the number of birds per replicate and number of replicates and even the effects of intrinsic factors to research on experimental variability. The aim of this research is to establish ranges for the classification of spread measures, and the relationship between measurements and the number of birds per replicate, number of replicates per treatment, number of birds slaughtered for carcass evaluation, number of eggs collected for quality analysis and impact of research intrinsic factors on experimental variability. The data were obtained in papers published in journals with Qualis/CAPES classification in strata A1, A2, B1, B2 and B3, in the area of animal science. To determine the classification of the spread measures. The data were correlated by Spearman correlation, qualitative data were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test. The classification ranges of coefficients of variation can be used as an indicator of the quality and reliability of data from experiments with laying hens and broilers. The age or production stage of laying hens and broilers should be considered in the comparison of experimental results. The standard error of means varies greatly in production parameters of laying hens and broilers and seems not to be a measure of dispersion indicated to compare the accuracy of different experiments, their classification ranges serve as a frequency reference which it is results. Coefficients of variation and standard error of means of production parameters of broilers and laying hens are smaller the greater the number of repetitions and birds per replicate. The birds sampled for slaughter in assessing carcass of broilers must present the average weight of the replicate. The number of birds sampled does not influence the experimental variability. The days of sampling for quality analysis of eggs did not influence the random variation. The ideal number of eggs sampled is between four and five eggs per replicate. In broilers random variability for production variables are higher for Ross than for Cobb broilers. Straight run broilers exhibit greater variation in weight gain than lots of males in the creation phase of 1 to 21 days old. The carcass yield and abdominal fat have less random variability in straight run broilers than in lots of male chickens. No random effects that can increase experimental variability depending on the available area per bird on broilers. The higher is experimental period the greater is the random variations. White hens have less random variation in production parameters than brown hens. The coefficient of variation of productive parameters of laying hens increases with increasing the available area per bird.

O conhecimento da demanda hídrica de uma cultura é fundamental para o planejamento da implantação de novas áreas, bem como para a análise da viabilidade econômica de uma cultura em determinada região. A utilização de culturas para fontes de matéria prima alternativa vem sendo altamente estudada nos últimos anos. Dentre muitas, vem se destacando no cenário nacional e mundial a cultura do pinhão-manso (Jatropha curcas L.) para a produção de biodiesel. O consumo de água por parte do pinhão-manso é pouco conhecida, necessitando ser estudada a fim de aprofundar os conhecimentos sobre a cultura e fornecer parâmetros confiáveis para a prática da irrigação. Os objetivos desse trabalho foram determinar a evapotranspiração (ET), a evaporação (E), a transpiração (T), o coeficiente de cultivo (Kc), coeficiente de evaporação (Ke) e coeficiente de cultivo basal (Kcb) do pinhão-manso na fase de formação irrigados por pivô central, gotejamento e sem irrigação na cidade de Piracicaba, SP. O experimento foi realizado na Fazenda Areão da Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\" da USP durante o período de março de 2012 a abril de 2013. O experimento foi dividido em três tratamentos, sendo: irrigado por pivô central, gotejamento e sem irrigação. A determinação de ET foi realizada por meio lisímetros de pesagem em cada tratamento, contabilizando a variação de massa em função das entradas saídas de água no sistema. A determinação do Kc foi realizada pela razão entre ET e ETo (estimado a partir de dados coletados na estação meteorológicos automática da Fazenda Areão). Por meio de microlisímetros de pesagem, foi determinado E. De posso dos dados de E, foram determinados os valores de T pela diferença de E (determinado no microlisímetro) e ET (determinado no lisímetro). Os valores de Ke e Kcb foram determinados pela razão de E e T por ETo, respectivamente. Os valores de ET variaram, principalmente, em função do método de irrigação. Foi observado uma superioridade dos valores de ET para o tratamento irrigado por pivô central, seguido do tratamento irrigado por gotejamento e sem irrigação. As médias dos tratamentos durante o primeiro ano foram 3,17, 2,82 e 2,82 mm dia-1 para os tratamentos irrigado por pivô central, irrigado por gotejamento e sem irrigação, respectivamente. Essa mesma proporção de ET entre os tratamentos irrigados foi observado nos valores de Kc. A média do período de Kc foi 0,69 e 0,63 para os tratamentos irrigados por pivô central e gotejamento. Essas maiores taxas de ET e Kc do tratamento irrigado por pivô central em relação ao tratamento irrigado por gotejamento foi devido ao método de irrigação por gotejamento ser mais eficiente na utilização de água pelas plantas em relação ao método por pivô central. Nesse método, a água é aplicada de maneira localizada as plantas, diferentemente do método por pivô central, em que a água é aplicada em toda a superfície do solo. Isso faz com que as taxas de E no método por gotejamento seja menor em relação ao pivô central, diminuindo as taxas de ET. De maneira geral, as taxas de E e Ke foram maiores em relação aos valores de T e Kcb durante o período analisado. Isso foi devido as plantas estarem com porte baixo e o solo estar quase por completo exposto as variações atmosféricas, fazendo com que as taxas de E e Ke sejam superiores as de T e Kcb. A média de E e Ke foram 1,85 mm dia-1 e 1,03, respectivamente, e as médias de T e Kcb foram 0,4 mm dia-1 e 0,2, respectivamente. / The knowledge of the water demand of a culture is essential for planning of new areas, as well as for the economic viability analysis of a culture in a specific region. The use of crops for alternative feedstock sources has been extensively studied in the last years. Among many, jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.) has been highlighted for biodiesel production in the national and global scenarios. Water consumption by the jatropha is little known, which requires to be studied in order to increase the knowledge and provide reliable parameters for the irrigation practice. The objectives of this study were to determine the evapotranspiration (ET), evaporation (E), transpiration (T), crop coefficient (Kc), evaporation coefficient (Ke) and basal crop coefficient (Kcb) of jatropha in the formation phase irrigated by center pivot, drip and without irrigation in Piracicaba, SP. The experiment was conducted at Areão Farm of Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\" of USP during March 2012 to April 2013. The experiment included three treatments: center pivot irrigated, drip irrigated and dryland. The determination of ET was made by weighing lysimeters for each treatment, accounting the inputs and outputs of water in the lysimeter system. The determination of Kc was made by the ratio between ET and ETo (estimated from data collected at the automatic meteorological station of Areão Farm). The determination of E was made by microlysimeters and T was determined between the difference of ET and E. Ke and Kcb values were determined by the ratio of E and T by ETo, respectively. ET values varied, mainly, according to the irrigation method. It was observed superiority of ET values for the treatment irrigated by center pivot, followed by the treatment irrigated by drip and without irrigation. The average during the first year was 3.17, 2.82 and 2.82 mm day-1 for the treatment irrigated by center pivot, irrigated by drip irrigated and without irrigation, respectively. The same proportion of ET from irrigated treatments was observed in the values of Kc. In the period, the average of Kc was 0.69 and 0.63 for the treatments irrigated by center pivot and irrigated by drip. These higher rates of ET and Kc of the treatment irrigated by center pivot compared to the treatment irrigated by drip was due to the method of drip irrigation is more efficient in water use by plants in relation to the method irrigated by central pivot. In this method, the water application is made in a localized way, differently in relation to the center pivot method in which water is applied all over the soil surface. This makes E rates given by drip irrigation method lower than the center pivot irrigation method, decreasing its ET averages. In general, rates of E and Ke were higher compared T and Kcb values during the period analyzed. This was explained due the short plants stature and the soil was almost completely exposed to atmospheric variations, causing rates of E and Ke exceed from T and Kcb rates. The average of Ke and E were 1.85 mm day-1 and 1.03, respectively, and the average of T and Kcb were 0.4 mm day-1 and 0.2, respectively.

This paper studies data from a 25-year period in the history of Sweden and the US, ranging from 1993 to 2017. The aim of the thesis was to investigate the impact of immigration on the income inequality of the respective countries while also considering the impact of other specific variables. In order to estimate the impact of the variables, both static and dynamic models were used, with the Gini coefficient being the dependent variable. With the ordinary least square giving short-run estimates and the error correction model providing short- and long- run estimates simultaneously, the main variable for immigration, being the foreign-born population, showed a strong positive relationship with income inequality. For the estimation, the immigration variable was also split into high- and low-skilled immigrants as well as different age groups. In conclusion, we find that immigration in Sweden and the US has high levels of influence on the income inequality for both countries.

Neste trabalho s€o apresentadas as medidas do coeficiente de multiplica€o gasosa (&alpha;) no isobutano puro obtidas com uma cƒmara de placas paralelas protegida contra descargas por um eletrodo de vidro (anodo) de elevada resistividade (&rho; = 2 x 1012.cm). O m†todo empregado foi o de Townsend pulsado, onde a ioniza€o prim‡ria † produzida pela incidˆncia de um feixe de laser de nitrogˆnio em um eletrodo met‡lico (catodo). As correntes el†tricas medidas com a cƒmara operando em regime de ioniza€o e de avalanche foram utilizadas para o c‡lculo do coeficiente de multiplica€o gasosa pela solu€o da equa€o de Townsend para campos el†tricos uniformes. A t†cnica utilizada foi validada pelas medidas do coeficiente de multiplica€o gasosa no nitrogˆnio, um g‡s amplamente estudado, e para o qual se tem dados bem estabelecidos na literatura. Os coeficientes de multiplica€o gasosa do isobutano foram medidos em fun€o do campo el†trico reduzido no intervalo de 139Td a 208Td. Os valores obtidos foram comparados com os simulados pelo programa Imonte (vers€o 4.5) e com os ‰nicos dados existentes na literatura, recentemente obtidos pelo nosso grupo. Esta compara€o demonstrou que os resultados s€o concordantes dentro dos erros experimentais. / In this work it is presented measurements of gaseous multiplication coefficient (&alpha;) in pure isobutane obtained with a parallel plate chamber, protected against discharges by one electrode (anode) of high resistivity glass (&rho; = 2 x 1012.cm). The method applied was the Pulsed Townsend, where the primary ionization is produced through the incidence of a nitrogen laser beam onto a metallic electrode (cathode). The electric currents measured with the chamber operating in both ionization and avalanche regimes were used to calculate the gaseous multiplication coefficient by the solution of the Townsend equation for uniform electric fields. The validation of the technique was provided by the measurements of gaseous multiplication coefficient in pure nitrogen, a widely studied gas, which has well-established data in literature. The coefficients in isobutane were measured as a function of the reduced electric field in the range of 139Td up to 208Td. The obtained values were compared with those simulated by Imonte software (version 4.5) and the only experimental results available in the literature, recently obtained in our group. This comparison showed that the results are concordant within the experimental errors.

Neste trabalho foram conduzidos experimentos de laboratório no intuito de avaliar o efeito da textura superficial no desempenho de óleos lubrificantes aditivados e não aditivados. Os materiais envolvidos nos ensaios são referentes a materiais de anel e camisa de motores de combustão interna e as condições de superfície envolveram processamentos de lixamento e retífica, bem como texturização de microcavidades a laser. Os ensaios foram do tipo alternado, com regime limítrofe de lubrificação. Inicialmente foram feitas análises sobre a metodologia utilizada para o cálculo do coeficiente de atrito em ensaios alternados, mostrando que os valores fornecidos diretamente pelo equipamento (aqui chamados de coeficiente de atrito pico a pico) não foram efetivos para este estudo, pois apresentam alta dispersão entre as réplicas dos ensaios e não é representativo em termos de eficiência do tribossistema. Foram geradas microcavidades nas superfícies de alguns blocos de ferro-fundido mediante texturização a laser. Esta texturização gerou rebarbas que foram retiradas por um processo de lixamento. Com isso, uma parte dos resultados avaliou o efeito do lixamento nos parâmetros de rugosidade, no entanto que o processo acaba por aumentar os valores de raio de aspereza e reduzir a altura média dos picos. Por fim, ensaios com óleo sem aditivo tiveram formação de óxido em todas as condições de superfície, com pouca variação do coeficiente de atrito. Já nos ensaios com óleo aditivado, os resultados mostraram pouca influência das microcavidades e maior contribuição das características de picos (raio e altura) na formação de tribofilmes redutores de atrito (neste caso MoS2). / This work was conducted by experimental tests in order to evaluate the effect of surface texture on fully formulated oil and base-oil performance. In these tests, the materials were related to the piston ring and cylinder, in which surfaces were sanded, grounded and textured by laser. In addition, the tests were carried out by reciprocating movement and boundary conditions. A coefficient of friction study in reciprocating tests was performed, showing that peak-to-peak methodology does not represent properly the tribosystem efficiency. Burr was generated around the dimples (made by laser surface texturing), in which were removed by sanded process. The results showed that sanded process increased the peak radius and decreased the peak height. The results considering the base oil showed oxide formation on the surface in all the cases, occurring low variation of friction coefficient in the system. On the other hand, in the fully formulated oil results, the dimples had no influence on MoS2 formation; however, it was possible to see a strong relation with the radius and average height of the asperities.