The UK building stock accounts for about half of all energy consumed in the UK. A large portion of the energy is consumed by nondomestic buildings. Offices and retail are the most energy intensive typologies within the nondomestic building sector, typically accounting for over 50% of the nondomestic buildings’ total energy consumption. Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are the largest energy end use in the nondomestic sector, with energy consumption close to 50% of total energy consumption. Different HVAC systems have different energy requirements when responding to the same building heating and cooling demands. On the other hand, building heating and cooling demands depend on various parameters such as building fabrics, glazing ratio, building form, occupancy pattern, and many others. HVAC system energy requirements and building energy demands can be determined by mathematical modelling. A widely accepted approach among building professionals is to use building energy simulation tools such as EnergyPlus, IES, DOE2, etc. which can analyse in detail building energy consumption. However, preparing and running simulations in such tools is usually very complicated, time consuming and costly. Their complexity has been identified as the biggest obstacle. Adequate alternatives to complex building energy simulation tools are regression models which can provide results in an easier and faster way. This research deals with the development of regression models that enable the selection of HVAC systems for office buildings. In addition, the models are able to predict annual heating, cooling and auxiliary energy requirements of different HVAC systems as a function of office building heating and cooling demands. For the first part of the data set development used for the regression analysis, a data set of office building simulation archetypes was developed. The four most typical built forms (open plan sidelit, cellular sidelit, artificially lit open plan and composite sidelit cellular around artificially lit open plan built form) were coupled with five types of building fabric and three levels of glazing ratio. Furthermore, two measures of reducing solar heat gains were considered as well as implementation of daylight control. Also, building orientation was included in the analysis. In total 3840 different office buildings were then further coupled with five different HVAC systems: variable air volume system; constant air volume system; fan coil system with dedicated air; chilled ceiling system with embedded pipes, dedicated air and radiator heating; and chilled ceiling system with exposed aluminium panels, dedicated air and radiator heating. The total number of models simulated in EnergyPlus, in order to develop the input database for regression analysis, was 23,040. The results clearly indicate that it is possible to form a reliable judgement about each different HVAC system’s heating, cooling and auxiliary energy requirements based only on office building heating and cooling demands. High coefficients of determination of the proposed regression models show that HVAC system requirements can be predicted with high accuracy. The lowest coefficient of determination among cooling regression models was 0.94 in the case of the CAV system. HVAC system heating energy requirement regression models had a coefficient of determination above 0.96. The auxiliary energy requirement models had a coefficient of determination above 0.95, except in the case of chilled ceiling systems where the coefficient of determination was around 0.87. This research demonstrates that simplified regression models can be used to provide design decisions for the office building HVAC systems studied. Such models allow more rapid determination of HVAC systems energy requirements without the need for time-consuming (hence expensive) reconfigurations and runs of the simulation program.

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La prédiction du bruit émis par les unités extérieures des pompes à chaleur, provenant en partie des batteries à ailettes, constitue un enjeu industriel important. L’obstacle majeur réside dans l’impossibilité de réaliser le calcul acoustique d’une batterie à ailettes avec les outils de simulation classiques (Éléments Finis de Frontière) à cause du trop grand nombre d’éléments nécessaires (près de 600 ailettes par mètre). Cette thèse a pour objectif d’exploiter la périodicité des batteries à ailettes afin de pouvoir calculer leur bruit rayonné à partir du rayonnement d’une seule ailette. La propagation des vibrations est décrite sous la forme d’une décomposition en ondes, autorisant la réalisation séparée des calculs pour chaque onde. Le déplacement en tout point de la structure est calculé à partir du déplacement d’un seul élément unitaire, obtenu par la Méthode des Éléments Finis (FEM). Un élément unitaire acoustique est spécialement défini, comprenant des baffles rigides destinés à représenter l’influence des autres ailettes de la structure. Le rayonnement de cet élément est calculé pour chaque onde en utilisant la méthode des Éléments Finis de Frontière (BEM), puis dupliqué spatialement en tenant compte de la nature propagative des différentes ondes. Pour chaque structure étudiée, la comparaison avec le calcul direct de la structure complète montre une très bonne concordance avec des temps de calcul fortement réduits. L’influence de plusieurs paramètres sur le comportement de la structure a également été identifiée, mettant ainsi en évidence certains phénomènes particuliers propres aux structures périodiques. Dans la dernière partie de cette thèse, une validation expérimentale de l’approche périodique est proposée. Les résultats numériques sont comparables aux mesures vibratoires et acoustiques réalisées sur les batteries à ailettes. / The prediction of noise from outdoor units of heat pumps, partly coming from finned coils, is an important industrial issue. The major obstacle to the study of finned coils lies in the inability to perform the acoustic calculation with classic simulation tools (Boundary Element Method) because of the huge number of required elements (about 600 fins per meter). The goal of this thesis is to exploit the periodicity of finned coils in order to calculate the total noise radiated from the radiation of a single fin, and thus get rid of the number of fins composing the structure. The vibrations propagation is described as a wave decomposition, allowing the realization of separate calculations for each wave. The displacement at any point of the structure is calculated from the displacement of a single unit element, obtained with the Finite Element Method (FEM). An acoustic unit element is especially defined, comprising rigid baffles representing the influence of other fins of the structure. The radiation of this component is calculated for each wave using the Boundary Element Method (BEM), then spatially duplicated taking into account the propagation of the different waves. For each considered structure, a comparison with the direct calculation of the complete structure shows very good agreement with greatly reduced computation times. The influence of several parameters on the behaviour of the structure was also identified, thus highlighting some particular phenomena specific to periodic structures. In the last part of this thesis, an experimental validation of the periodic approach is proposed. Numerical results are close to vibratory and acoustic measurements done on the finned coils.

Dans les accélérateurs de particules de type synchrotron tels que SOLEIL, le faisceau de particules doit répondre à des critères toujours plus exigeants afin d’améliorer les propriétés du rayonnement synchrotron émis. Le comportement du faisceau d’électrons dépend notamment des aimants multipolaires de l’anneau de stockage du synchrotron. Parmi eux, les quadrupôles, qui produisent une induction magnétique quadrupolaire, ont un rôle capital dans la focalisation des particules du faisceau. Certains défauts de fabrication peuvent introduire des décalages dans la position de leur axe magnétique et dans l’orientation transverse de l’induction magnétique, ce qui détériore la qualité de champ. Il est donc nécessaire de quantifier ces défauts et de les corriger. Pour cela, des mesures magnétiques sont mises en œuvre. Le premier chapitre de ce mémoire s’attache principalement à expliciter les tolérances imposées aux quadrupôles de l’anneau de stockage du synchrotron SOLEIL. Dans le second chapitre, les outils théoriques permettant de mettre en œuvre la méthode des bobines tournantes sont présentés. Une modélisation est proposée afin de prévoir les conséquences des défauts des bobines tournantes sur les harmoniques de l’induction magnétique. Une méthode de détection des défauts du banc de mesures est également présentée. Le troisième chapitre est dévolu aux résultats expérimentaux obtenus lors de la mesure des aimants multipolaires (quadrupôles) de l’anneau de stockage de SOLEIL. Dans un dernier chapitre, l’alignement basé sur le faisceau (BBA) des quadrupôles et des sextupôles dans l’anneau de stockage est abordé. Cette étape est indispensable car elle permet de connaître la position du faisceau par rapport à son orbite théorique qui peut être définie comme étant l’axe magnétique des quadrupôles ou l’axe magnétique des sextupôles. Une méthode de BBA est ici validée dans le cas des quadrupôles et une autre est proposée dans le cas des sextupôles / In particle accelerators, more particularly in synchrotrons like SOLEIL, the particle beam is submitted to very strict constraints in order to improve the synchrotron radiation properties. The behaviour of the electron beam depends on the magnetic field distribution along the machine, mainly produced by the multipolar magnets of the storage ring (SR). Among them, the SOLEIL quadrupoles makes the electron beam very sensitive to their magnetic field errors due to some manufacturing defects. In that context, two main parameters are very important concerning the quadrupoles: the magnetic axis location and the magnetic field orientation in the transverse plane. These quantities are to be quantified and corrected by means of magnetic measurements. The first part of this thesis is mainly devoted to the presentation of the quadrupole constraint origin. In that context, the accelerator history and a brief review of the existing magnetic measurement method are presented. In the second chapter, theoretical tools regarding rotating coils are detailed. A model is proposed to simulate the effects of rotating coil defects on the magnetic measurements. Then, to quantify these defects, a method is detailed in order to take them into account during the measurements. A third chapter is devoted to the magnetic measurement bench set up and to the experimental results of the SR multipolar magnet measurements. Finally, the last chapter deals with the beam-based alignment (BBA) of the SR multipoles. A method is validated for quadrupoles and an innovative BBA method is proposed in the case of sextupoles

Le projet Iseult-Inumac mené au sein d’un consortium franco-allemand vise à développer les techniques associées à l’imagerie par résonance magnétique à ultra haut champ, notamment à travers la construction d’un imageur à 11,7 teslas. La résolution accrue du nouvel imageur devrait apporter une meilleure compréhension du système nerveux et de ses dysfonctionnements pour aboutir à un dépistage plus précoce des pathologies telles que la maladie d’Alzheimer, les accidents vasculaires cérébraux ou les tumeurs.La principale difficulté technique du projet, en dehors de la construction de l’aimant statique, réside dans la capacité d’émettre une onde électromagnétique d’amplitude uniforme dans tout le cerveau du patient : problème de l’inhomogénéité de B1 (ou radiofréquence). Une solution proposée consiste à utiliser une antenne réseau à transmission parallèle et des séquences d’excitation IRM spécifiques dites de compensation.Cette thèse se concentre sur la conception des antennes réseaux à transmission parallèle pour l’IRM à 7 et 11,7 T. Un prototype à 8 canaux indépendants utilisant une technologie innovante de résonateurs linéaires est présentée pour l’IRM 7 T. Il a été conçu par la simulation numérique. Un protocole de validation a été développé pour la caractérisation et l’analyse des performances des antennes réseaux. Le succès de cette validation a permis de développer par la simulation une nouvelle antenne à 12 canaux et une stratégie de pilotage innovante permettant de n’utiliser que 8 chaînes de pilotage au lieu de 12. Enfin, la même méthodologie a été appliquée pour concevoir et prédire les performances d’une antenne réseau à 11,7 T. / The Iseult-Inumac project led by a franco-german consortium aims at developing the ultra-high field MRI technologies, especially with the building of an 11.7 tesla scanner. The high resolution of this new scanner may improve the understanding of human nervous system and its dysfunctions in order to detect pathologies like the Alzheimer disease, strokes or tumors earlier.The biggest technical difficulty, besides the building of the static magnet itself, lies in the emission of a uniform electromagnetic wave in the entire brain of the patient. It is usually referred as to B1 (or RF) inhomogeneity issues. A solution consists in using a phased array RF coil and specific MRI sequences for shimming in a parallel transmit approach.This thesis deals with the study of parallel transmit phased arrays RF coils for 7 T and 11.7 T MRI. An eight independent channels prototype-coil that uses a new planar strip array technology is described for 7 T MRI. It was designed based on numerical simulation. A validation methodology has been developed for characterization and performance analysis of transmit phased arrays. After a successful validation of this first prototype, a more efficient 12-channel coil and a new driving strategy that only requires 8 driving channels instead of 12 were designed. Finally, the same methodology was applied to a phased array RF coil for 11.7 T MRI.

A presente pesquisa trata do estudo teórico/experimental dos efeitos da geometria e dos parâmetros construtivos em trocadores de calor compactos do tipo serpentina para aplicações em refrigeração e ar condicionado no desempenho termo/hidráulico do ar. Para tanto, 15 serpentinas comerciais foram submetidas a testes em uma bancada experimental onde ambas as condições de entrada do ar e da água quente, utilizada como fluido dos tubos, podiam ser controladas e ajustadas. Serpentinas com aletas corrugadas (\"wavy\") e ventiladas convexas (\"convex louver\"), com distintas densidades de atletas, número de fileiras de tubos em profundidade, diâmetro e passo de tubos foram investigadas. Um programa de simulação de serpentinas foi desenvolvido para dar suporte ao tratamento de resultados. Os resultados experimentais obtidos confirmaram tendências da literatura acerca de efeitos da geometria da serpentina no desempenho termo/hidráulico do ar nas serpentinas. Algumas correlações da literatura se compararam bem aos resultados experimentais, embora algumas ilustraram importantes discrepâncias. Foram também investigadas distintas configurações geométricas segundo uma análise que envolve a segunda lei da Termodinâmica. Finalmente, os resultados experimentais, mediante regressão de dados, permitiram a elaboração de correlações gerais para os coeficientes de transferência de calor e de atrito do ar que incorporam os efeitos dos parâmetros geométricos das serpentinas. Tais correlações representaram bem os resultados experimentais com razoável acuracidade. / The research reported herein is about a theoretical and experimental study of the effects of geometric and constructive parameters of compact heat exchangers of the coil type for refrigeration and air conditioning applications over the air-side thermo-hydraulic performance. For that purpose, 15 commercial coils have been submitted to tests in an experimental set-up where both the inlet conditions of the air and those of the warm water, used as tube fluid, could be adequately controlled and adjusted. Wavy and convex louver fin coils with different fin density, number of tube rows, and tube spacing and diameter have been investigated. A computer simulation program of air coils has been developed as a working tool in the experimental results treatment and manipulation. The obtained experimental results follow closely established trends of the literature regarding the effects of the geometric parameters over the thermo-hydraulic performance of the air flow in the coils. Some correlations from the literature compare reasonably well with the experimental results though some have shown important discrepancies. It has also been investigated the performance of the different geometric configurations through a second law of Thermodynamics analysis. Finally, experimental results have been curve fitted in such a way to develop generalized correlations for the air-side heat transfer and friction coefficients that include all the important geometric parameters of the aircoils. Such correlations have proved to fit the experimental results with reasonable accuracy.

A presente pesquisa trata do estudo teórico/experimental dos efeitos da geometria e dos parâmetros construtivos em trocadores de calor compactos do tipo serpentina para aplicações em refrigeração e ar condicionado no desempenho termo/hidráulico do ar. Para tanto, 15 serpentinas comerciais foram submetidas a testes em uma bancada experimental onde ambas as condições de entrada do ar e da água quente, utilizada como fluido dos tubos, podiam ser controladas e ajustadas. Serpentinas com aletas corrugadas (\"wavy\") e ventiladas convexas (\"convex louver\"), com distintas densidades de atletas, número de fileiras de tubos em profundidade, diâmetro e passo de tubos foram investigadas. Um programa de simulação de serpentinas foi desenvolvido para dar suporte ao tratamento de resultados. Os resultados experimentais obtidos confirmaram tendências da literatura acerca de efeitos da geometria da serpentina no desempenho termo/hidráulico do ar nas serpentinas. Algumas correlações da literatura se compararam bem aos resultados experimentais, embora algumas ilustraram importantes discrepâncias. Foram também investigadas distintas configurações geométricas segundo uma análise que envolve a segunda lei da Termodinâmica. Finalmente, os resultados experimentais, mediante regressão de dados, permitiram a elaboração de correlações gerais para os coeficientes de transferência de calor e de atrito do ar que incorporam os efeitos dos parâmetros geométricos das serpentinas. Tais correlações representaram bem os resultados experimentais com razoável acuracidade. / The research reported herein is about a theoretical and experimental study of the effects of geometric and constructive parameters of compact heat exchangers of the coil type for refrigeration and air conditioning applications over the air-side thermo-hydraulic performance. For that purpose, 15 commercial coils have been submitted to tests in an experimental set-up where both the inlet conditions of the air and those of the warm water, used as tube fluid, could be adequately controlled and adjusted. Wavy and convex louver fin coils with different fin density, number of tube rows, and tube spacing and diameter have been investigated. A computer simulation program of air coils has been developed as a working tool in the experimental results treatment and manipulation. The obtained experimental results follow closely established trends of the literature regarding the effects of the geometric parameters over the thermo-hydraulic performance of the air flow in the coils. Some correlations from the literature compare reasonably well with the experimental results though some have shown important discrepancies. It has also been investigated the performance of the different geometric configurations through a second law of Thermodynamics analysis. Finally, experimental results have been curve fitted in such a way to develop generalized correlations for the air-side heat transfer and friction coefficients that include all the important geometric parameters of the aircoils. Such correlations have proved to fit the experimental results with reasonable accuracy.

Les dispositifs de stimulation tactile sont des systèmes destinés à fournir un retour sensoriel à leurs utilisateurs. Ils enrichissent les interfaces homme-machine dans les applications de réalité virtuelle ou augmentée. Ce mémoire traite de l’apport des microsystèmes électromécaniques (MEMS) actionnés magnétiquement à la réalisation d’interfaces de stimulation tactile facilement intégrables.Un état de l’art des solutions d’actionnement mises en œuvre dans les dispositifs existants est proposé, ainsi qu'une définition des besoins pour les applications visées. Les solutions retenues sont basées sur l’actionnement magnétostatique.Les premiers prototypes d’interfaces de stimulation tactile se présentent sous la forme d'un réseau de 4x4 actionneurs élastomériques hybrides avec un pas de 2 mm, combinant microfabrication et techniques de fabrication conventionnelles. La conception et l’élaboration de ces micro-actionneurs est présentée en détail. L'actionnement impulsionnel permet d'atteindre des amplitudes de vibration importantes (jusqu'à 200 µm) et des forces élevées (32mN par actionneur). Des tests sensoriels confirment enfin leur efficacité. Des micro-bobines ont aussi été développées afin de répondre aux besoins des micro-actionneurs magnétiques, ainsi qu'au cahier des charges des interfaces de stimulation tactile. Diverses configurations de micro-bobines adaptées à l'actionnement de puissance sont proposées et réalisées par électrodéposition. Des micro-actionneurs basés sur ces bobines intégrées ont alors été réalisés, puis caractérisés. L'utilité des bobines pour les micro-actionneurs de puissance est alors discutée face aux solutions d’actionnement hybride / Tactile display devices are systems bound to provide a tactile feedback to their users. They improve human-machine interfaces in the fields of virtual or augmented reality. This report deals with the contribution of magnetically actuated micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) to the elaboration of easily integrable tactile display devices.A state of the art of actuation techniques used in existing devices is proposed, along with a requirements analysis for tactile applications. Magnetostatic actuation was considered for these needs.First tactile display device prototypes are designed as a network of 4x4 hybrid elastomeric micro-actuators with a 2 mm pitch, and combined microfabrication and conventional fabrication techniques.The conception and elaboration of these micro-actuators is detailed. High vibration amplitudes can be reached using pulse actuation (up to 200 µm), with instantaneous forces of 32 mN per actuator. Sensitive tests were also achieved in order to confirm their efficiency.Micro-coils were also developed in order to fulfill the magnetic micro-actuators needs, and meet the requirements for tactile display devices. Various micro-coil configurations suitable for power actuation are proposed and elaborated by electrodeposition. Micro-actuators based on elastomeric membranes were fabricated and characterized. The contribution of these micro-coils for micro-actuation is discussed face with hybrid approaches

<p>Electromagnetic transients impinging on electromagnetic power devices - such as electric machines, transformers and reactors - can stress the design severely. Thus the magnitudes of the transients are often decisive for the design of the devices. Further, the operation of a device can be transient in itself. This is the case for the explosive magnetic flux compression generator (EMG) and a ferromagnetic actuator. </p><p>Models are presented that are mainly intended for transients in the millisecond range and faster. Hence, eddy currents and the related skin and proximity effect become significant in windings, magnetic cores and in the armatures of the devices. These effects are important for, e.g., the damping of the transients. Further, the displacement current in the insulation of the winding is significant. It changes the response of the windings dramatically, as it manifests the finite velocity of propagation of the electromagnetic fields. Under such circumstances, reflections and excited resonances can make the transient voltage and current distribution highly irregular. </p><p>Induced voltages are modelled with self and mutual inductances or reluctances combined with winding templates. The displacement currents are modelled with capacitances or coefficients of potential. Cauer circuits and their dual form are used to model eddy currents in laminated cores and in conductors. The Cauer circuit enables one to consider hysteresis and the non-linear response of a magnetic core. It is also used to model the eddy currents in the moving armature of an EMG. </p><p>A set-up is presented that can be used to study the transient voltage and the current distribution along a coil. </p><p>The transient response of coaxially insulated windings is analysed and modelled in detail. A lumped circuit model is developed for a coil, Dryformer^TM - the new high-voltage transformer - and Powerformer^TM, the new high-voltage generator. An alternative model, a combined lumped circuit and FEM model, is presented for a coaxially insulated winding in two slot cores.</p>

Electromagnetic transients impinging on electromagnetic power devices - such as electric machines, transformers and reactors - can stress the design severely. Thus the magnitudes of the transients are often decisive for the design of the devices. Further, the operation of a device can be transient in itself. This is the case for the explosive magnetic flux compression generator (EMG) and a ferromagnetic actuator. Models are presented that are mainly intended for transients in the millisecond range and faster. Hence, eddy currents and the related skin and proximity effect become significant in windings, magnetic cores and in the armatures of the devices. These effects are important for, e.g., the damping of the transients. Further, the displacement current in the insulation of the winding is significant. It changes the response of the windings dramatically, as it manifests the finite velocity of propagation of the electromagnetic fields. Under such circumstances, reflections and excited resonances can make the transient voltage and current distribution highly irregular. Induced voltages are modelled with self and mutual inductances or reluctances combined with winding templates. The displacement currents are modelled with capacitances or coefficients of potential. Cauer circuits and their dual form are used to model eddy currents in laminated cores and in conductors. The Cauer circuit enables one to consider hysteresis and the non-linear response of a magnetic core. It is also used to model the eddy currents in the moving armature of an EMG. A set-up is presented that can be used to study the transient voltage and the current distribution along a coil. The transient response of coaxially insulated windings is analysed and modelled in detail. A lumped circuit model is developed for a coil, DryformerTM - the new high-voltage transformer - and PowerformerTM, the new high-voltage generator. An alternative model, a combined lumped circuit and FEM model, is presented for a coaxially insulated winding in two slot cores.