Aiken Lake map-area lies in the Cassiar District of north-central British Colombia between 56°00' and 57°00’ north and longitudes 125°00' and 126°00' west. It is a relatively rugged, glaciated area lying almost entirely within the Omineca-Cassiar Mountain System. The oldest rocks within the map-area are quartz-mica schists, garnetiferous schists and quartzites of probable Proterozoic age conformably overlain by Lower Cambrian chlorite schists, slates, quartzites, and limestones. A relatively large area of these Proterozoic and Cambrian rocks has been further metamorphosed to feldspathized quartzite and gneiss. A total of nearly 30,000 feet of interbedded volcanic pyroclastic and true sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Devonian or Mississippian to Upper Triassic outcrops in a broad belt across the central part of the map-area. These rocks are intruded by dykes, sills, stocks, and batholiths of Upper Jurassio or Lower Cretaceous age. The intrusive bodies range from granite to pyroxenite in composition, granodiorite being the dominant rock type. A body of conglomerate at least 5500 feet thick of probably Lower Cretaceous age, containing many pebbles of intrusive rocks, is faulted into Triassic or Upper Palaeozoic rocks. The Proterozoic and Lower Cambrian rocks have been folded, apparently during their period of metamorphism, into large anticlinoria. The planes of schistosity of the metamorphosed rocks lie approximately parallel to the limbs and to the crests of the anticlinoria. The grade of regional metamorphism of these rocks increases uniformly as lower stratigraphic horizons are reached. Known mineral deposits within the area are almost entirely confined to the Lower Cambrian and Proterozoic schists and limestones, or to the aureoles of the Jurassic-Cretaceous igneous bodies. Those in the Lower Cambrian and Proterozoic rocks are typically of the lead-zinc-silver type. Many of these mineral occurrences have no known association with igneous rocks. The deposits found within the aureoles of the Jurassic-Cretaceous igneous bodies have characteristic gold-quartz, gold-copper, or copper-lead mineralization. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

This thesis deals with the development of the militia of British Columbia during the period 1871-1914 and takes into account the various economic, political, and social factors within British Columbia which affected its growth This includes an examination of the causes, both internal and external, which induced certain individuals or groups of people in the province to agitate for the establishment of militia units, and the Dominion policy towards this agitation. In this latter respect it takes into account the strength and weaknesses of the militia system both in the Dominion as a whole and within the province of British Columbia. It deals briefly with Imperial defence policy in general, and Canadian-Imperial relations concerning the defence of British Columbia, in particular Esquimalt. The various British proposals for the joint defence of the naval station, the Dominion policy concerning such proposals and the negotiations which led to joint defence agreements are considered. The author concludes that policy concerning the defence of British Columbia originated not with the Dominion Government, but with the Imperial authorities. Some examination is made of the effect of a permanent regular garrison upon a volunteer militia in the way of instruction, example, etc., and of Canadian policy towards the establishment of a permanent garrison at Esquimalt. The historical significance of the work lies in the fact that, with the exception of Mr. R.H. Roy’s article, The Early Militia and Defence of British Columbia, 1871- 1885, there has been no examination of the early military history of this province. Canadian military history, including that of the various provinces, has as yet been but slightly examined by historians. It offers a wide field for research. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

The history of the disposal of Crown lands in British Columbia is in reality the history of the economic development of the province. It covers the progress of British Columbia from its days as a hunting and trading preserve of the Hudson's Bay Company through its brief colonial period and formative years as a province down to its years of rapid settlement and development in the decade before 1913. Once the colonial period had passed, the attack upon the natural resources began in earnest. So rich and abundant did those resources of land, mine, forest, and water prove that British Columbia found itself launched into an industrial era almost before adequate legislation had been framed to deal with its land and resources. Legislation was necessary to guide the economic progress of the province and to establish regulations governing the disposal of Crown land and its appurtenant resources of mineral, timber, and water. The laws were framed always with a view to accomplishing three things - encouraging settlement, forestalling speculation, and securing revenue. Since in every case the basis of provincial legislation was to be found in the proclamations and ordinances framed from 1858 to 1864 by Governor Douglas, a survey of colonial regulations is needed to clarify subsequent policy. To assist him in framing proclamations for guiding the progress of the two colonies, Douglas looked to the Colonial Office, the terms under which the Hudson’s Bay Company had held Vancouver Island, and his own judgment. The first regulations adhered closely to principles laid down by the Colonial Office. Douglas was carefully instructed to ward off speculation in public lands by making beneficial use of the criterion of alienation. No agricultural land was to be pre-empted other than by bona fide settlers. Land was not to be sold without some guarantee that it would be improved. Timber leases were to be granted only to the operators of saw Mills. Miners could not divert water from streams unless it was needed at once. By 1871 the principle of beneficial use had been so thoroughly established in law that it was never thereafter abandoned. Practice, however, was at variance with principle and until the McBride ministry had devised adequate administrative machinery after 1909 little could be done to enforce regulations. Secondly, Douglas was instructed to reserve certain rights to the Crown. Gold, wherever found, was so reserved; by 1913, silver, coal, natural gas, and oil had been added. Land for government purposes was similarly reserved to the Crown. As for other principles, Douglas found he could not enforce them in the face of existing conditions. Sale of land by auction did not work, nor did insistence upon immediate payment. Neither principle could prevail for long. To secure money, Douglas soon discovered he must dispose of lands on easy terms. Had the Colonial Office seen fit to heed Douglas's plea to lend credit to the new Pacific colonies to relieve them of the pressing need for money, the subsequent wholesale alienation of large tracts of the best land at very low prices would have been unnecessary. Beneficial use, sale only by auction, cash sales, and survey prior to alienation could all have been firmly established and carefully supervised. As it was, British Columbia did none of these things and indeed, became the only province in Canada where land could be alienated prior to survey. Prom 1871 to 1913 British Columbia followed the pattern set in colonial days. The only reason the province retained ninety per cent of the timber stands was that, before legal safeguards were enacted, timber was regarded more as a nuisance than as an asset. But the necessity for securing revenue by selling or otherwise disposing of Crown lands on as easy terms as possible established a pattern of thinking that was to see the reckless alienation of millions of acres of land to railway promoters between 1883 and 1900. Much of the land was later repurchased. And because of the difficulties which arose between the Dominion and the province over jurisdictional conflicts stemming from the presence of a forty-mile strip of land through the heart of the province granted in exchange for rail connections with eastern Canada, enough ill-feeling was engendered to make the allotting of Indian reserve lands one of the most vexed problems In provincial history. Crown lands in unlimited quantity were disposed of to land and timber speculators and railway promoters from 1871 to 1900. Not until 1900 did provincial governments begin to question the wisdom of such wholesale alienation. Land was so eagerly sought from 1905 to 1913 that effective machinery was finally devised to regulate its disposal on terms most favourable to the province. Pre-emptions were inspected, water rights were clarified, timber lands were placed under reserve for sale of the timber by auction only, extensive surveys of agricultural lands were made, and settlement was at last directed to areas served by communication facilities. By 1913 Crown lands and their natural resources were recognized for what they were - priceless expendable assets and the people’s heritage - no longer to be disposed of heedlessly but rather to be conserved for posterity. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

No abstract included. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

This thesis recognizes the value of using a variety of perspectives to study the history of an ethnic minority group. The history of some groups is lacking in insider perspectives. I have attempted to add balance to the existing accounts by using an oral history approach to describe the experiences of the Sikhs living in British Columbia from 1920-1947. I am an insider, a Sikh whose grandfather was one of the original pioneers who came in the first wave of immigration in the 1904-1908 time period. These people are no longer with us, but some of their wives and children are still available to share their history with future generations. I interviewed and recorded 24 individual histories. From these I have formed a composite picture of the Sikh community in British Columbia from 1920-1947. Beginning with descriptions of social, political and cultural conditions in India and Canada at the time of arrival, we follow them through the important stages of their lives in their adopted land. They describe the journey over, settling in, adaptations, work, social life, the fight for rights, and the role of their temple and religion. We see the events and circumstances that eventually led to the Sikhs being able to call Canada their home. The many photographs, letters and documents give further insights into the lives of this distinctive group of Canadians. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

The Depression and World War II were two distinct sociological eras in the 20th century. Both of these periods played dramatic roles in the history and development of British Columbia. This research examined sport and physical recreational activities, to demonstrate the status and influence that these activities had during these two periods of social and economic turmoil. The research was carried out by reviewing government documents related to this era and this field of study, and then reviewing the effect these government acts, debates and discussions had on the sport and recreation programmes of the time. Newspaper reports and historical sketches of various sports and recreation programmes were the main source for gaining information of these activities. It was during the Depression that both the British Columbia Provincial Government and the Federal Government first introduced financial support for sport and recreation. The British Columbia Government inaugurated its Pro-Rec activity programme in 1934 and the Youth Training Act of 1937 saw the first Federal Government finance allocated for leisure-time activities. In 1943, during World War II the Canadian Government passed the National Physical Fitness Act which supported and funded sport and physical recreational activities as well as financially aiding the provincial programmes of Pro-Rec. The Depression years saw a definite rise in the status of sport. This was displayed in increased participation, increased spectator attendance, and increased coverage in newspapers and on the radio. This same increase was also noted in recreational activities, particularly in the programmes of Pro-Rec, the YMCA, the YWCA and such programmes as the Sunday School Activity Leagues. Physical education in the schools was improved in status to equal all other school subjects. The Depression years also saw the birth of such sport and recreation associations as the British Columbia branch of the Canadian Physical Education Association, the Vancouver Elementary Schools Physical Education Association for Women and the Vancouver Elementary Schools Physical Education Association. Sport and physical recreational activities influenced the life of many people. It was the type of activity that was being promoted to fill the long idle hours of unemployment. Promotion was undertaken by many agencies, the most prominent being the British Columbia Government with its Pro-Rec programmes. The war years that followed, however, saw a reversal in the status of these activity programmes. With the war effort consuming so many workers and so many hours, very few people had the time to participate in, organize or administer sport and recreation. All areas of sport and recreation seemed to suffer in the number of participants and the standard of participation. Sport and physical education in the schools and university also deteriorated; the new programmes introduced in the Depression years being disregarded or discontinued because of a lack of physical education teachers. / Education, Faculty of / Curriculum and Pedagogy (EDCP), Department of / Graduate

This study examines the fishing industry in British Columbia and finds that it is failing to provide fishermen with incomes comparable to those available in other seasonal occupations in the province. Because of the common-property status of the fishery resource and the fact that access to that resource is virtually unlimited, there has been excessive investment of capital and labour at the primary level of the industry. In this situation net returns to fishermen are seriously depressed. This problem is further complicated by the fact that most fishermen have limited occupational mobility. It is suggested that this combination of low incomes and occupational immobility produces frustration which leads to serious unrest among the fishermen. While the source of the income problem lies largely in the common-property status of the fishery resource, this is not immediately apparent to the fishermen. They feel that their poor incomes are a reflection of the inadequacy of the prices they receive for their catch. Thus, their financial relations with the fish processing companies become the focus of their discontent. However, as long as the fundamental problem of unrestricted entry remains unresolved, there will be continued industrial unrest. Assuming this to be true, it is further suggested that the prevailing atmosphere of discontent and conflict will be favourable to the growth of radical ideologies and the emergence of radical leaders in fishermen's unions. In support of these hypotheses, evidence is presented of the high level of conflict between the fishermen and the processing companies, and of the radical left-wing orientation of fishermen's unions in British Columbia. / Arts, Faculty of / Political Science, Department of / Graduate

This thesis considers the Pacific Great Eastern Railway, the British Columbia Railway as of April 1, 1972, a Provincial Crown corporation, and the implications of its extensions upon regional development. The indicators of regional development studied are population and industrial profiles. The time framework of the thesis is from 1952 to 1972, the period of the P.G.E. extensions. Two perspectives of the implications for regional development are examined. Chapter Two treats with the Provincial Government agencies whose policies have had the most effect in the study area. The financing, safety, and freight rate implications of the P.G.E. are discussed. In addition, general policies and inter-relationships with the P.G.E. of the following Provincial agencies are considered: B.C. Hydro, the Department of Highways, and the Forest Service. The third through sixth chapters consider the regional development of four regions: Squamish-Cariboo, Prince George, Peace River-Liard, and Omineca-Stikine. These regions, in turn, are broken into areas—usually to correspond with a central P.G.E. railway station and its commodity carloadings. The development within each area is studied in respect to population changes and industrial expansion since 1951. The P.G.E. commodity carloadings from 1966 through 1970 are used as indicators of regional development. The fluctuations of the carloadings of certain commodities, such as woodchips, lumber and veneer, merchandise, and machinery and parts, have been used to show the level of regional industrial development. Alone, the P.G.E. commodity carloadings are of little use. However, they take on more meaning in light of the policies of the Provincial Government agencies. The usefulness of the data takes a quantum leap when individual shippers indicate how much they ship, its routing, and its final destination. A limited attempt at this later refinement is provided by the responses of about fifty company and government officials to a single page, open-ended question letter. Most of these responses are in letter form although those companies with offices in Vancouver are interviews. A limitation of the technique used in this thesis to determine regional development is the inability to estimate the importance of the service sector. The obvious weight is given to the resource extraction and manufacturing sectors since these are the sectors which generate railway carloadings. Only when there is a significant population and the total carloadings are relatively low, are there suspicions of a large service sector or the possibility of significant truck shipments. The general conclusion to this thesis is that the Pacific Great Eastern Railway has stimulated regional development in the areas it serves directly. However, this development has been primarily in the forest products industry, in conjunction with Forest Service policies and technological improvements. The development of this industry has then provided a stimulus for maintenance and repair services and a more stable population base, which has helped to establish a need for improved highways. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The exploitation of natural resources in British Columbia has been strongly influenced by man's attitudes towards his environment. These attitudes have evolved from the cultural and historical legacy of Europe as well as from certain unique North American characteristics. As an ultimately irreplacable resource, wilderness serves as an interesting example of man's relationship to his environment. However, this relationship is difficult to document, requiring consideration of such diverse aspects as the cultural and historical sources of wilderness attitudes; the various values placed on wilderness; the treatment of wilderness as reflected in parks policy; and an approximate knowledge of the existing distribution of wilderness in British Columbia. Attempts to integrate these can at best only provide a personal view of the overall situation, but this seems useful if there is to be progress towards the understanding of man's relationship to his environment. The North American's perception and treatment of wilderness have been significantly affected by human history generally and North American myths specifically. Only in the last seventy to eighty years has it been possible for North Americans to regard wilderness without a great deal of fear and disdain. Up until this time the wilderness was an area of the unknown where man ventured in fear of his physical and spiritual safety. With the advent of an increasingly technocratic society, wilderness has come to serve as a significantly important symbol for a growing number of people. Wilderness stands as a symbol of man's origins and of his initial role as a member of the earth community. It symbolizes a collection of goals, ideals, and values that man may pursue as alternatives to pure material achievement. Also, because it is ultimately an irreplacable resource, wilderness preservation represents the preservation of individual freedoms and the number of alternatives available to future generations. The predominantly negative attitudes towards wilderness have facilitated and encouraged its hastened removal from the North American scene. Certainly British Columbia presently possesses vast amounts of wilderness. However, given the relatively short period of time since the date of its original European settlement, the rate of wilderness depletion must be regarded as significant. In examining wilderness losses over five time periods ranging from 1923 to 1970 it was found that the greatest alienations occurred following WW II, notably on Vancouver Island and in the mainland area south of 54°. While the rates of wilderness loss in these two regions have slowed somewhat, the mainland area north of 54° is currently experiencing wilderness loss at an accelerating rate. In 1970 less than 40% of the mainland area south of 54° could be classified as wilderness. This same figure for Vancouver Island was discovered to be less than six percent. Study of the mainland area north of 54° indicated that 84% of this area was wilderness, although this figure was based on insufficient data. In light of this wilderness view for British Columbia, eight specific recommendations on preservation policies at both the Federal and Provincial levels of Government can be outlined: clarification of purposes and objectives, greater cooperation between governments, implementation of a public education program, preservation of future alternatives, a greater emphasis on long-term considerations, and a broader basis for policy decisions. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Tourism has grown as a part of the process of settlement. The tourist has filled the role of observer, promotional agent, investor, settler and customer. The settlement process in turn generates new tourism. The tourist seeks change from the familiar, a rest, a sport, or many seek new experiences, new cities and new lands. The proportion of the population who participate in tourism, their wealth, time, and the modes of transportation have grown considerably. The implications of tourism are felt throughout the range of responsibility for land use planning. The role tourism has played, could play and should play has received little attention. The potential of tourism must be identified, projected, planned for and implemented in future development planning. Tourism is basically a movement of people. Our concept of studying people has rested heavily on a census of resident population, and considerable data has been accumulated. However little is known about movements of people in general, and tourist movements in particular. Projection of tourist movements into the future is therefore difficult. This study examines the hypothesis that "current sources of data are sufficient to estimate the numbers and origin of tourists entering an area, and that it would be possible to project such data objectively." The Province of British Columbia was selected as a case study. We know very little of the quantities and characteristics of tourists in British Columbia. Tourists entering the Province by automobile in the summer months have been examined in a single survey. There is a need to know more about tourists travelling at other times of year, by other means of transportation, travelling within the Province, and of changes over time. While we have overall estimates of tourism they lack detail and refinement. Planning agencies have paid little attention to tourism as yet. There has been only one study of tourism by a planning agency. Where it has been considered, the objective has been to preserve an environment and to locate tourist facilities convenient for tourists and to minimize the intrusion into the community. Changes in the quantities and characteristics of tourism appear to be inevitable. However the degree of change is not easy to determine. Population growth, increasing leisure time, growing personal income, and increased mobility appear to be the factors most likely to shape future patterns of tourism. A. twenty per cent reduction in working time appears to be feasible by the end of the century. This increased leisure time could result in a three-fold increase in annual vacations. Combined with a two-fold increase in population, this could lead to a six-fold growth in tourism. However, it-is doubtful whether all the increase in leisure time would be devoted to tourist activities. All methods available for projecting future tourist volumes have some value, but none are entirely satisfactory. A certain amount of "judgment" is required in any form of projection. As yet we have very little to act as a basis for such judgment. Existing data is minimal, and our analytical knowledge of many aspects of tourism is limited if not non-existent. However, we have estimates of total volumes of tourism in British Columbia from year to year. They provide a general picture of the importance of tourism within the study area. An examination of the future shows that tourism will grow, and may grow very considerably. Thus we can conclude that the hypothesis is valid at the broadest level. Improvements in data collection and our knowledge of the characteristics of tourism will permit refinement of projections of tourism, and consequently, will permit planning at a more detailed level. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate