The majority of faults display a layer of crushed wear material ("fault gouge") between the fault blocks, which influences the strength and stability of faults. This thesis describes the results of a numerical model used to investigate the process of comminution in a sheared granular material. The model, based on the Discrete Element Method, simulates a layer of 2-D circular grains subjected to normal stress and sheared at constant velocity. An existing code was modified to allow grains to break when subjected to stress conditions that generate sufficient internal tensile stresses. A suite of five numerical runs was performed using the same initial system of grains with sizes randomly chosen from a pre-defined Gaussian distribution. A range of confining pressures was explored from 4.5 MPa to 27.0 MPa (in case of quartz grains with average diameter of 1 mm). The average effective friction coefficients of the five simulations were relatively unaffected by comminution and displayed a constant value of about 0.26. The amount of breakage was directly related to both the applied confining pressure and logarithm of the displacement along the fault. The particle size distribution evolved during the runs, but it was apparently determined only by the cumulative number of grain breakage events: two runs with the same number of breakage events had identical particle size distributions, even if they deformed to different extents under different stress conditions. These results suggest that the knowledge of both the local displacement and stress state on a fault can be used to infer the local particle size distribution of the gouge.

O desgaste de corpos moedores constitui um custo importante na indústria mineral, que depende da operação de cominuição para promover a liberação das espécies minerais e produzir concentrados. Embora se conheça alguns dos mecanismos individuais que afetam o desgaste, a interação entre eles num sistema tão complexo quanto um moinho ainda precisa ser melhor entendido. Este trabalho avaliou o efeito da corrosão no desgaste de bolas de aço e de ferro fundido branco de alto cromo durante a moagem de minério de ferro, através de ensaios eletroquímicos e de desgaste em moinho de laboratório. Foi feita uma alteração no modo tradicional de realização do ensaio de polarização potenciodinâmica, utilizando polpa de minério de ferro a 70% de sólidos (em peso) como eletrólito. As curvas de polarização obtidas foram compatíveis com os resultados de desgaste, de modo que as curvas correspondentes aos metais na condição mais ativa estavam associadas às menores taxas de desgaste nos ensaios de moagem em laboratório, demonstrando que os ensaios de polarização realizados podem ser utilizados como indicativo do comportamento do metal na moagem de minério de ferro. Sobretudo, os testes demonstraram que o desgaste das bolas de aço é devido, principalmente, à abrasão, já que uma pequena diferença, de apenas 8%, foi observada nas taxas de desgaste nas condições avaliadas (polpa no pH 5 e pH 8). Por outro lado, as bolas de ferro fundido branco de alto cromo, que são mais caras, são mais propensas a resistir ao desgaste em polpa ácida, em que a taxa de desgaste foi 40% menor que a determinada em pH 8. / The wear out of grinding media represents a major cost in the mineral industry, which strongly depends on the mineral liberation to achieve the production of concentrates. Although some of the individual mechanisms that affect wear are already known, the interaction between them in such a complex system as an ore mill still needs further investigation. This work analyzed the effect of corrosion on the wear of balls made of steel and high chromium cast iron, while grinding iron ore, by means of electrochemical tests and wear tests conducted in a laboratory mill. A modification of the traditional potenciodynamic polarization test is proposed, using iron ore slurry at 70% w/w as an electrolyte. The results of the polarization curves were compatible with those from the wear tests, as the curves corresponding to the condition in which the metal showed the more active behavior were associated to the lower wear rates in the wear tests, suggesting that the modified polarization tests can be used as an indicative of the metal alloy behavior while grinding iron ore. Moreover, it demonstrated that the wear of steel balls is mainly due to abrasion, as a slight difference of 8% in their wear rates was observed in both conditions investigated (pH 5 and pH 8). On the other hand, the high chromium cast iron balls, which are more expensive, were more likely to resist wear in slurry at pH 5, achieving a wear rate 40% lower than in pH 8.

Na área de moagem secundária, ou remoagem, a preocupação com a eficiência energética se mostra de extrema importância. Em geral, os consumos específicos desta etapa são superiores aos da etapa primária. Além disso, tem se observado uma tendência de afinamento das granulometrias de moagem nos novos projetos de minerais metálicos, o que leva cada vez mais a uma maior necessidade de gastos nesta etapa, tanto em termos de custos de implantação como de operação. Nos novos projetos que incluem remoagem no Brasil granulometrias de remoagem da ordem de 40 a 20 m têm se mostrado necessárias. Neste contexto, os moinhos tubulares de bolas, adequados para moagem primária, apresentam eficiências decrescentes em termos de aproveitamento de energia, quando são necessários produtos abaixo de 50 m. A fim de avaliar as melhores alternativas tecnológicas disponíveis para estas aplicações de remoagem, este trabalho estudou moinhos de carga agitada, com foco em moinhos verticais. O presente trabalho apresenta e discute os resultados de amostragens em escala industrial com o moinho vertical em quatro usinas em operação no Brasil. Foi desenvolvido também um novo ensaio em escala laboratorial para simular o consumo de energia e a distribuição granulométrica dos moinhos verticais, que se mostrou válido para a aplicação estudada. / Energy efficiency is extremely important in secondary grinding (regrinding) as specific consumption are greater than obtained in primary grinding. Moreover, finer grinding sizes are a trend in new grinding circuits therefore increasing the energy consumption, as well as respective capital and operating costs. In Brazil regrinding sizes between 40 a 20 m are common in greenfield projects. As horizontal ball mills show decreasing efficiency as grinding sizes are finer than 50 m, this work shows regrinding equipment alternatives to ball mills focusing on vertical mills. A number of survey campaigns were carried out on four industrial operations in which vertical mills were installed in the respective regrind circuit. A new batch test was developed and validated to predict the energy consumption and product size distribution associated to vertical mills.

A series of homogeneous halogen containing polymers have been studied whilst sliding against mild steel and oxides present on mild steel. The degradation characteristics of P. V. C. and C1d P. V. C. have been correlated in terms of current mechano-chemical comminution theory and the process causing the wear of P. V. C., C1d P. V. C., P. T. F. E. and P. C. T. F. E. described in relation to the chemical and physical conditions at the sliding interface. In addition the potential importance of the chemical role of oxide free iron surfaces in wear processes has been demonstrated by interacting an analogue compound of P. T. F. E. (n-C5F12) with clean iron under ultra high vacuum conditions. The resulting fragmentation of the perfluorinated compound is discussed and a simplified degradation mechanism suggested.

Distal radius fracture (DRF) is the most common fracture encountered in clinical practice. Every year, more than 20000 people in Sweden suffer from this injury. It has been shown that there is a correlation between malalignment and function following distal radial fractures and malunion may cause persistent pain and disability. A problem has been in making a correct initial assessment of the fracture. Many fractures are unstable despite an acceptable position on the initial radiographic examination or following a successful closed fracture reduction. Numerous classification systems have been developed for evaluation of DRF in order to predict the outcome. However, the values of these are limited since they have not shown satisfactory reliability. Furthermore, the utility of these systems to predict radiographic or clinical outcome is not yet proven. These shortcomings may be one reason why optimal DRF management is still controversial. Requests for a new classification system of DRF, predictive of outcome and easy to use, have been made. Improvement in initial assessment of DRF will benefit a large group of patients, as well as the society, by reducing persistent symptoms and disability. Study I: In this study we evaluated the interobserver and intraobserver reliability of a new classification system (the Buttazzoni classification). Two hundred and thirty-two patients with acute DRF were blindly evaluated using the new classification by three orthopaedic surgeons twice with a 1-year interval. The new classification showed fair to substantial interobserver and intraobserver reliability, i.e., results comparable with other commonly used classification systems. Study II: This was a prospective multicenter study of fracture stability in 428 DRF. The study investigated whether cortical comminution and intra-articular involvement, as well as the new classification system, could predict displacement in DRF. Logistic regression analysis showed that initial position of the fracture and volar or dorsal comminution predicted later displacement, while intra-articular involvement did not. Volar comminution was the strongest predictor of displacement. The new classification system, which is the first to include volar comminution as a separate parameter, was highly predictive of fracture instability. Furthermore we found that it is quite common for non-operatively treated fractures to displace at a later stage than two weeks. Study IV: In study II it was found that late displacement of DRF, still in acceptable radiologic position after 10-14 days, occurred in approximately 1/3 of cases. Despite this, we have not been able to find any study focusing on evaluating the clinical outcome in patients with late displacement. Two hundred and nine unilateral DRF from study II were still in good position after 10-14 days and were included in the study. One hundred and seventy five patients had radiographs taken at a minimum of 3 months and a clinical examination 1 year after the fracture. Late displaced distal radius fractures had significantly higher loss of ROM and grip strength compared to fractures that didn’t displace. No significant differences were seen in subjective outcome. In conclusion, initial position of the fracture predicted later displacement and was the most important parameter in predicting clinical outcome. Comminution of the fracture also affected radiological stability and clinical outcome. Volar comminuted fractures are highly unstable and need surgical intervention if displacement is to be avoided. Intra-articular involvement affected clinical outcome. Late displacement is common in DRF and may result in loss of range of motion and grip strength. To detect late displacement, DRF should be followed for more than 2 weeks. The new classification system had a moderate reliability and reproducibility. The classification was found predictive of radiologic and objective clinical outcome. However, it was not predictive of subjective outcome. The classification system was also predictive of fractures at risk for late displacement.

The characterization of rock properties is a vital task in the challenge for hard rock mining operation. A simplified and straightforward characterization of rock properties provides information about the safety of ground structure (e.g. slope, tunnel, etc.), and the strategy to improve productivity in terms of rock breakage process. The penetration-rate of drilling has been proposed to quantify the comminution characteristics of rock by virtue of real-time logging of drilling performance otherwise the data is obtained from a time- and cost-consuming laboratory test; this is called measurement while drilling. In the mining industry, this technique can be a useful tool that has allowed for the meticulous and routine data collection of geological information from blasthole drilling operations. In this study, the mechanical performance of drill and its interaction with the rock properties is investigated in laboratory scale. The rock properties include tensile strength, hardness, and grindability, which is considered as the influential parameters of the required energy consumption for the comminution processes. For sandstone samples, the penetration-rate data shows a good correlation with tensile strength, hardness, and Bond work index; this implies that penetration-rate data can be a good indicator to estimate comminution characteristics. Additionally we carried out the same test with limestone samples. Second, field study is conducted to investigate the interaction between current blast design and rock fragmentation. Fabricating the blast design and fragmentation through the blast operation might enable to construct proper strategy to reduce the energy cost of downstream processes including crushing and grinding by using the rock characteristics measured from the blasthole drilling. The concept of this process is a part of Mine-to-Mill optimization. The thesis proposed the blueprint of Mine-to-Mill optimization, providing a guideline for further in-situ research.

Etapas de cominuição representam uma grande parcela do capital e custo operacional em uma usina de processamento mineral. Em 1983, Cohen estimou que os processos de cominuição podem ser responsáveis por 30% a 50% do consumo energético da usina representando tipicamente 50% dos custos operacionais de uma mineração. Sendo assim, sua otimização está diretamente relacionada com a redução destes custos de operação. Entre os equipamentos de britagem, o moinho de martelos é aquele dedicado às operações que visam a alta taxa de redução com geração controlada de finos. Este britador é recomendado para minérios friáveis e pouco abrasivos, apresentando alta capacidade produtiva. O presente trabalho tem por objetivo propor e validar um modelo matemático para modelagem e simulação de moinho de martelos, visando a simulação do circuito da britagem industrial de beneficiamento de minério de ouro do Córrego do Sítio I, localizada em Santa Bárbara - MG. As simulações visaram identificar gargalos operacionais e estabelecer cenários que permitam otimizar o circuito estudado. A amostragem foi executada conforme o plano traçado. As amostras obtidas foram utilizadas tanto para a caracterização do minério quanto para a calibração do modelo do Caso Base da operação da usina. As simulações indicaram acréscimos significativos de vazão de alimentação na usina, a partir do aumento da velocidade de rotação do moinho de martelos, com uma tendência de geração maior de finos no processo. Para simulação do aumento de velocidade de rotação dos martelos foi criado um modelo com base na energia de quebra das partículas, associada aos incrementos correspondentes na energia cinética dos martelos. A fim de validar o modelo proposto, foram planejados ensaios específicos em moinho de martelos de laboratório, e executados com o mesmo minério alimentado na usina industrial selecionada. Os ensaios consistiram em variações de velocidade de rotação dos martelos, de forma a corresponder às simulações anteriormente realizadas do equipamento industrial. O modelo criado foi validado com base em campanha experimental específica. / Comminution represents a large portion of the capital and operating cost of a mineral processing plant. In 1983, Cohen estimated that comminution processes could account for 30% to 50% of the power consumption of the mill, and typically represents 50% of the operating costs of a mine. Therefore, its optimization is directly related to reduction of these operating costs. Among the crushing equipment, the hammer mill is one which is dedicated to operations that aim for high reduction ratio with controlled generation of fines. This crusher is recommended for friable and low abrasive ores presenting a high productive capacity. This study aims to develop a stepwise approach that allows the use of the classical crusher model (Whiten-Andersen) in modeling and simulation of circuits containing a hammer mill, simulating the resulting product according to variation of rotation speed within the equipment. The existing model for crushers developed by Whiten-Andersen considers the Perfect Mixing Model, which represents crushing through equations related to selection and breakage functions, that provide an equilibrium condition. The present work aims at the validation of a mathematical model of hammer mill, aiming at a simulation of the circuit of the industrial crushing of gold ore of Córrego do Sítio I, located in Santa Bárbara - MG. The simulations aimed at identifying operational bottlenecks and establishing scenarios that allow optimizing the studied circuit. Sampling was performed according to the drawn plan. The samples obtained were used both for the characterization of the ore and for the calibration of the Base Case model of the plant operation. The simulations indicated significant increases in feed flow at the plant, due to the increase in the speed of rotation of the hammer mill, with a trend of higher generation of fines in the process. To simulate the increase of rotational velocity of the hammers, a model was created based on the energy of breaking of the particles, associated to the corresponding increments in the kinetic energy of the hammers. In order to validate the proposed model, specific tests were planned in laboratory hammer mill, and executed with the same ore fed in the selected industrial plant. The tests consisted of variations in the speed of rotation of the hammers, in order to correspond to the previous simulations of the industrial equipment. The model created was validated based on specific experimental campaign.

Student Number : 9803381J - MSc Dissertation - Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment / Although pulsed power has been used in many parts of the world over the last few decades to initiate high-voltage discharges through rock, no systematic test work on South African ore bodies and related rock types has been done so far. As part of CSIR Miningtek’s integrated approach of combining underground comminution with a novel Tore© hydrotransport system, which has been shown to operate well with coarse particles up to 10 mm, various rock types were fragmented in single discharge mode under laboratory conditions. The work was conducted at the University of the Witwatersrand’s high-voltage laboratory with a custom-designed test rig. The rig configuration was based on a critical review and analysis of the literature and on assessments of existing test facilities elsewhere. Core samples with diameters ranging from 16 to 48 mm were cut from test specimens with thicknesses ranging from 8 to 48 mm. Rock types included Ventersdorp Contact Reef, Carbon Leader, Elsburg Formation, UG2 and Merensky, as well as pure quartz, shales, lava and dykes. A six-stage Marx generator provided a voltage rise time of 2 000 kV/μs to create a discharge through the rock, in preference to a discharge through the surrounding water, which acts as an insulator at ramp-up times faster than 0,5 μs. High-speed photography, and an analysis of the voltage and current signals for various rock types and for water alone, were used to quantify the potential benefits of rock breaking by electric discharge. It was found that some Kimberlite specimens and mineralised gold-bearing reefs were much easier to fragment than hanging wall or footwall material. Merensky reef appeared to be more susceptible than the less brittle UG2 material. A correlation was derived between the dynamic resistivity of various rock types, measured at 16 MHz excitation frequency, and the electrical breakdown strength at which discharge took place. The fragments created had a more cubical shape than would be created by conventional impact crushing. However, the high voltage requirements of about 30 to 35 kV per millimetre of rock thickness would necessitate not only efficient mechanical and electrical contact between the electrodes and the rock, but also considerable safety features for underground installations. The clearly identified, preferential fracturing of reef rock types, compared with the hanging or footwall materials, suggests that the greater benefit of electric rock breaking may lie in primary rock breaking as a mining method, rather than in secondary comminution of broken rock to enable hydraulic transportation by pipeline to surface.

ABSTRACT This work applies the concepts of the attainable region for process synthesis in comminution. The attainable region analysis has been successfully applied for process synthesis of reactor networks. The Attainable Region is defined as the set of all possible output states for a constrained or unconstrained system of fundamental processes (Horn, 1964). A basic procedure for constructing the attainable region for the fundamental processes of reaction and mixing has been postulated in reaction engineering (Glasser et al., 1987). This procedure has been followed in this work to construct the candidate attainable region for size reduction processes as found in a size reduction environment. A population balance model has been used to characterise the evolution of particle size distributions from a comminution event. Herbst and Fuerstenau (1973) postulated the dependency of grinding on the specific energy. A specific energy dependent population balance model was used for the theoretical simulations and for the fitting of experimental data. A new method of presenting particle size distributions as points in the Euclidian space was postulated in place of the traditional cumulative distribution. This allows successive product particle size distributions to be connected forming a trajectory over which the objective function can be evaluated. The curve connects products from successive batch grinding stages forming a pseudo-continuous process. Breakage, mixing and classification were identified as the fundamental processes of interest for comminution. Agglomeration was not considered in any of the examples. Mathematical models were used to describe each fundamental process, i.e. breakage, mixing and classification, and an The application of the attainable region analysis in comminution Abstract algorithm developed that could calculate the evolution of product particle size distributions. A convex candidate attainable region was found from which process synthesis and optimisation solutions could be drawn in two dimensional Euclidian space. As required from Attainable Region Theory, the interior of the bounded region is filled by trajectories of higher energy requirements or mixing between two boundary optimal points. Experimental validation of the proposed application of the attainable region analysis results in comminution was performed. Mono-sized feed particles were broken in a laboratory ball mill and the products were successfully fitted using a population balance model. It was shown that the breakage process trajectories were convex and they follow first order grinding kinetics at long grind times. The candidate attainable region was determined for an objective function to maximise the mass fraction in the median size class 2. It was proved that the same specific energy input produces identical products. The kinematic and loading conditions are supposed to be chosen as a subsequent event after the required specific energy is identified. Finally the fundamental process of classification was added to the system of breakage and mixing. The attainable regions analysis affords the opportunity to quantify exactly the reduction in energy consumption due to classification in a comminution circuit, thus giving optimal targets. Classification showed the potential to extend the candidate attainable region for a fixed specific energy input. The boundary of the attainable region is interpreted as pieces of equipment and optimum process conditions. This solves both the original process synthesis and successive optimisation problems.

A etapa de cominuição é a operação que mais consome energia de forma ineficiente. Pequenos ganhos de eficiência podem impactar significativamente nos custos operacionais da planta. Durante as décadas passadas, foram atingidas melhoras consideráveis na eficácia dos processos não apenas pela otimização integrada das etapas de cominuição, mas também pelo desenvolvimento de tecnologias que permitem o uso mais eficiente da energia. Entre elas está a Prensa de Rolos de Alta Pressão (PRAP, em inglês High Pressure Griding Rolls - HPGR). Uma campanha experimental em planta piloto foi conduzida para avaliar o desempenho da prensa de rolos (PR) em diferentes configurações de circuito. No total, foram conduzidos 18 ensaios em circuito fechado com peneira, com recirculação parcial do produto da PR e recirculação do produto das bordas. Este estudo apresenta os resultados de tal campanha e as análises contemplam: A comparação do desempenho da PR em diferentes configurações do circuito em termos do consumo de energia, da capacidade do circuito e da granulometria do produto. A avaliação do impacto da eficiência de classificação e da carga circulante no desempenho da PR em circuitos fechados. As análises conduzidas compararam o desempenho da PR a partir dos índices de desempenhos do equipamento e do circuito (capacidade específica, relação de redução e potência específica) que foram obtidos através das variáveis de processo como a vazão mássica, o P50 das distribuições granulométricas dos fluxos e o consumo de potência. Porém, dependendo do índice avaliado, uma configuração é mais vantajosa que a outra. Portanto, foi estabelecido um indicador que relacione as três variáveis de processo (capacidade, consumo de potência e granulometria) para determinar o circuito mais energeticamente eficiente. / Comminution is the most energy-intensive and energy-inefficient operation. A small gain in comminution efficiency can have a large impact on the operating cost of a plant. During the last decade, there have been considerable improvements in comminution efficiency not only due to the optimal design of grinding systems and operating variables that enable more efficient use of existing comminution devices, but also due to the development of comminution devices with the ability to enhance energy utilization. One such recognized technology which addresses most of these issues is the highpressure grinding roll (HPGR). A pilot scale test program was conduct in order to evaluate the size reduction performance of HPGR operating in different circuit configurations. In total, eighteen pilot-HPGR locked cycle tests were performed to simulate the HPGR performance in closed circuit with a screen, product recycle and edge recycle. This work provides the results from the pilot scale HPGR test program. The analysis reported herein includes: A comparison of different circuit configurations of HPGR operation in terms of energy consumption and product fineness. An evaluation of the impact of classification efficiency and circulating load on the performance of closed HPGR circuits. Analyses conducted compared the HPGR performance based onequipment and circuits indexes (specific capacity, reduction ratio and specific power) that were obtained through process variables such as flow rate, the P50 of the particle size distribution and power consumption. However, depending on the index evaluated, a configuration is more advantageous than the other. Therefore, an indicator was established that relates the three process variables (capacity, power consumption and particle size) to determine the most energy efficient circuit.