Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) programs and policies are being developed and implemented across the country. CVE is being criticized by various community leaders and members due to its inherent criminalizing nature as it is currently put into place by the Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). By exploring the various meanings of community in a multicultural community, various processes and practices can come to be analyzed as ways to prevent violent extremism without oversight from the DOJ and the DHS. Metro Detroit is a multicultural community that experiences statistically low levels of radicalization of community members who legitimize violent extremism. Even such cases can be delegitimized when considering the circumstances in which they exist. When examining the community cohesion that exists in Metro Detroit through various organizations, especially interfaith organizations, it becomes apparent that there is a strong attempt to create a cohesive community. The argument is not that community cohesion automatically leads to the absence of violent extremism, but that community cohesion builds relationships and practices so that potential causes for violent extremism can be addressed, lessened or diminished. It is suggested that the support of strengthening community cohesion in terms of CVE be dismantled from the DHS and the DOJ. Restructuring would best be supported as a joint effort between the Department of Education, the Department of Health and Human Services, and the Department of Housing and Urban Development, all of which are better equipped to deal with the causes of violent extremism. / Master of Arts / Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) programs have recently been piloted in the United States in Boston, Minneapolis, and Los Angeles. Beyond that, federal funding is given to various non-profits or organizations across the country that aim to create a stronger community in order to decrease the level or threat of radicalization. Speculation regarding the role of the Department of Justice and the Department of Homeland Security and their involvement in CVE stems from the fact that their presence, specifically the Federal Bureau of Investigation, automatically criminalizes a marginalized or vulnerable community. Community leaders across the country are growing more concerned with how CVE programs and policy is are being implemented. Engaging communities and providing them with the necessary resources as a joint effort through the Department of Education, the Department of Health and Human Services, and the Department of Housing and Urban Development without the securitized branding of CVE would be a more efficient way to deal with issues related to violent extremism. Community cohesion and practices to build such cohesion can prevent potential extremism by reducing marginalization and encouraging communication between different communities. The argument here is not that community cohesion automatically leads to reduced extremism, but that community cohesion builds relationships and practices so that potential drivers for extremism can be mitigated. By using Metro Detroit as a case study it becomes apparent that a high level of community cohesion and social cohesion play an integral role in leading to a lack of violent extremism in a multicultural community.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) calls for education to prepare children for "responsible life in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of indigenous origin" (UN, 1989, p.9). This thesis examines the potential role of Educational Psychologists (EPs) in addressing the UNCRC call to promote community cohesion through their work in schools. A systematic review of recent international research into the effects of psychology-based educational approaches promoting community cohesion was undertaken. The review, structured by the PRISMA framework, identified 13 studies examining the effects of approaches to community cohesion. Analysis of these studies yielded insight into approaches to community cohesion, which may be best promoted through educational approaches that have both knowledge and process-based components and through a multi-level approach, which takes into account the individual and their relationships as well as the relationships between community groups and the individual's participation in their community. An empirical study with an Educational Psychology Service (EPS) in the North West of England was undertaken. This consisted of an Appreciative Inquiry cycle of four focus groups exploring ways in which an EPS could envisage promoting community cohesion. Findings from the empirical study suggest that an EPS supporting community cohesion is facilitated by aspects of current EP practice including values and by EPs knowing their school communities. EPs reflecting on their own positionality regarding community and culture may also be a facilitator. Dissemination to EP practice was considered, both at the research site as well as within the profession more generally. A multi-level approach was generated in which dissemination to practice through journal publication, conference presentations and continued contribution to a working group of regional EPSs was planned alongside dissemination through the design and delivery of training packages for schools. Deliberation over whether adopting a children's rights-based approach could help to maintain focus on community cohesion through times of changing government priorities was discussed.

Au Royaume-Uni, les politiques d’intégration ont fait l’objet de redéfinitions successives depuis les émeutes urbaines de 2001 en Angleterre. Ces événements et les attaques terroristes de Londres de 2005, qui ont largement été décrits comme les résultats de la ségrégation ethnique de la société britannique, ont conduit à une remise en question des politiques multiculturalistes mises en œuvre depuis les années 1980, et à un réexamen des politiques d’intégration. L’objet de cette recherche est de déterminer les ruptures et les continuités dans les nouvelles définitions des politiques d’intégration, tant au niveau du discours politique que dans les modalités de mise en œuvre des politiques publiques, et de déterminer dans quelle mesure une véritable rupture avec le multiculturalisme s’est opérée entre 2001 et 2014. L’analyse des discours, des rapports officiels ainsi que notre enquête de terrain sur les réformes et les nouvelles modalités de la procédure de naturalisation ont abouti à plusieurs conclusions : d’un côté, on observe la cristallisation progressive d’une approche assimilationniste de l’intégration, particulièrement visible avec l’arrivée des conservateurs au pouvoir depuis 2010 ; de l’autre, on s’aperçoit que le discours et les politiques multiculturalistes persistent sous diverses formes. Ainsi, une vision nouvelle de l’intégration comme la « community cohesion » peut être interprétée comme ayant reconduit ce paradigme sous diverses formes. Quant à la reconnaissance continue du pluralisme religieux dans l’action publique, elle procède de ce que nous pouvons appeler une « confessionnalisation » du multiculturalisme britannique. / In the United Kingdom, integration policies have undergone a constant process of redefinition since the urban riots in northern England in 2001. These events, and the London bombings of 2005, which were widely described as resulting from the ethnic segregation of British society, have led to a questioning of the multiculturalist policies implemented since the 1980s and to a review of integration policies. The objective of this research is to determine the ruptures and the continuities in the new political definitions of integration, both at the level of political discourse and of the actual implementation of policy guidelines, and to determine whether there has been indeed a break with multiculturalism between 2001 and 2014. Analysis of speeches and official reports, as well as a field survey on the reforms and on the new arrangements for naturalization lead to several conclusions: On the one hand, it is possible to observe the gradual crystallization of an assimilationist approach to integration that has become more visible since the Conservatives came to power in 2010. On the other hand, however, multiculturalist discourses and policies subsist in various guises; in fact, innovative visions of integration such as ‘community cohesion’ can be understood to have renewed this paradigm in new ways. Likewise, the increasing recognition of religious pluralism in public action suggests what we call a ‘confessionalisation’ of British multiculturalism.

Social networks have been essential throughout hominin evolution, facilitating cooperative childrearing, transmission of cultural knowledge and the sharing of information and resources. As hominins dispersed out of Africa, these networks needed to be maintained at progressively higher latitudes. The first part of this thesis explores the impact of latitude on brain organisation and the possible implications for social cognition. I hypothesise that the lower temperatures and light levels found at higher latitudes select for larger bodies and visual systems, which in turn necessitate larger somatic and visual brain areas. Using orbit size to index eye and visual cortex size, I demonstrate a robust positive relationship between absolute latitude and orbit volume in recent humans. I show that Neanderthals, who solely inhabited high latitudes, have significantly larger orbits than contemporary anatomically modern humans (AMH), who evolved in lower latitude Africa and had only relatively recently dispersed into higher latitudes. Since Neanderthals and AMH dated 27-75kya have almost identical endocranial volumes, I argue that if a greater proportion of the Neanderthal brain was required for somatic and visual processing, this would reduce the volume of neural tissue available for other functions. Since, according to the Social Brain Hypothesis, neocortex volume is positively associated with social complexity, I propose that Neanderthals might have been limited to smaller social networks than AMH. The second part of the thesis explores the challenge of maintaining social networks across greater geographic distances at higher latitudes, where high travelling costs seem to prevent whole tribes from bonding during periodic aggregations. Using a gas model I predict that at lower latitudes daily subsistence mobility allows sufficient encounters between subgroups for the tribe to maintain connectivity, whereas in (Sub)Arctic biomes additional mechanisms are required to facilitate tribal cohesion. This may explain the apparent ‘explosion’ of Upper Palaeolithic art in Europe: symbolic representations allowed social ties to be sustained in the absence of frequent face-to-face contact. Overall, this thesis demonstrates that latitude may influence both brain organisation and cultural expression and argues that both can have a substantial impact on the maintenance of hominin social networks at high latitudes.

This thesis investigates the activities of two secondary schools in relation to their duty to promote community cohesion (intercultural understanding and cohesion within communities) and their engagement in global educational partnerships and international activities. In particular this study seeks to ascertain if there is a relationship between community cohesion and global educational partnerships –whether the activities and outcomes from one could inform the other in relation to intercultural understanding. There is little research on the relationship between these two initiatives. The research explores the understanding and experiences of staff involved in these initiatives in the two schools and that of pupils in Key Stages 3, 4 and 5 (11-18 years). Data is generated through semi-structured interviews and document analysis, providing a rich description of participants’ understanding and whole-school activities. What has emerged from the findings is a complex and subtle picture of two schools and their interpretations of their duty to promote community cohesion, engage in international activities, and the relationship between the two. Effective practice is identified such as developing inclusive perspectives through pupil peer-led teaching. However, barriers to effective practice have also been identified and include how cultural diversity is understood and presented through binary perceptions of ‘Other’. Such perspectives, alongside complex paternal power relations evident in educational partnerships with schools in the global South, are identified as problematic in the promotion of intercultural understanding and cohesion. The dominant political discourse, guidance for schools and the role of the schools’ inspection framework (Ofsted) are also influencing factors. Postcolonial Theory is used to interrogate policy and practice and presents alternative perspectives, and these, it is contended, can offer new ways forward in creating a ‘third’ space for intercultural understanding through global educational partnerships and community cohesion.

In October of 1998 the category 5 storm, Hurricane Mitch, struck Nicaragua, leaving in its wake mass destruction and devastation. Numerous aid agencies and social organisations poured funds into the country to assist in emergency disaster relief efforts, and to rebuild the lives of those who lost their homes and livelihoods (damnificados). El Mirador in the city of Matagalpa is one example of the many communities built with aid monies after Hurricane Mitch. This thesis uses qualitative data constructed from in-depth interviews with participants (community members in El Mirador) to understand the level of successful community development that has been achieved, the ability for longer term sustainability as a result of community development strategies, and the areas in which community development has failed. Through an examination of the relationship the community has with the NGO the Communal Movement, the question of long term sustainability becomes important. The most telling indicator (that development practice is unsustainable) is the unproductive coping mechanisms of community members as aid and social organisations withdraw leaving members with ineffective social networks and at times uncooperative behaviour. Added into this is the arrival of new members into the community, and squatters, who have only added to the feelings of segregation already apparent, as a 'them and us' mentality develops. This study provides a detailed case specific analysis of community development through disaster relief efforts. It highlights some of the consistent, broad inefficiencies as well as more location and situation specific difficulties of community development. Moreover, it adds to the growing body of literature researching how disaster relief can become more effective and sustainable in the longer term.

Employing critical race theory as a theoretical and analytical framework, this thesis explores the nature, structure and purpose of Islamophobic discourse, and offers two central contributions to the scholarly debate on Islamophobia. First, it contributes to the literature on the nature of Islamophobia by analysing the form and structure of discourse that seeks to represent Muslims and Islam in a number of social and political sites. Second, the thesis addresses a significant gap identified in the scholarly literature, which has largely overlooked the purpose that Islamophobic discourse serves for those employing it. In order to address the nature and structure of Islamophobic discourse, the thesis analyses representations of Muslims and Islam in dominant national community cohesion and counterterrorism discourses; rearticulation of these discourses at the local level in the West Midlands town of Dudley; the use of Islamophobic discourse by the English Defence League; and the ways in which Islamophobic narratives were used to mark national boundaries in Switzerland, Denmark, the Netherlands and France. I explain the convergence of narratives across these levels by extending Ghassan Hage's theoretical formulation of racism as nationalist practices to Islamophobic discourse and argue that, as a cultural racism, Islamophobia can be conceptualised as upholding a system of Eurocentric supremacy, where Western subjects receive a better social, economic and political 'racial contract' and seek to defend these privileges against real and imagined Muslim demands. Whether employed for local, national or civilisational purposes, Islamophobia relies on the notion that space has been culturally compromised by Muslims and must be restored to authenticity by legitimate non-Muslim cultural managers. Islamophobia operates through a three-stage ideological process, and restores fantasised power to those who perceive Muslim cultural difference to be unacceptably changing the spaces in which they reside by representing Muslims as making incongruous demands of a territory, singling out a particular timeless value that is under threat, and reifying this value to an absolute. Through this process Muslims are put back in their place, while those employing this discourse experience a restoration of their cultural power to decide the values of a space.

Over the past fifty or so years there has been a well examined decline in socialconnections and many other facets of American communities (Fischer 1982; Putnam2000; Freeman 2001; McPherson, Smith-Lovin, & Brashears 2006; Dunham-Jones &Williamson 2009). New urbanism has been proposed as a tool to reverse some of thissocial decline in communities. This study seeks to understand the possible socialconnective benefits of new urbanism in a number of ways. First, a new urbanistcommunity is compared to a similar adjacent community that also happens to betraditional suburban community. The study examines differences between the twocommunities in terms of social connections, social interactions, and communitysatisfaction. Second, the study examines individual design elements of new urbanism to understand their relationships with social interactions and social connections. This study also examines community cohesion in terms of diverse social interactions and bridging ties. Previous studies suggest that bridging ties are more likely to be formed between persons who are connected with weaker social bonds (Granovetter, 1973) as well as persons who interact through spontaneous rather than planned forms of social interaction (Molm, Collett, & Schaefer 2007). Lastly, this study seeks to understand if any of the new urbanist design strategies examined are related to bridging ties. The findings of this study suggested that new urbanist communities do have more social interactions, social connections, and community satisfaction than do traditional suburban communities. The findings also suggested that four new urbanist design strategies: porches, community meetings, and mixed-use zoning are positively related to social interactions and social connections. Moreover, findings suggested that persons connected by weaker social bonds are indeed more likely to have bridging ties, however, they did not support the idea that persons who have more spontaneous interactions will also be more likely to have bridging ties. Lastly, the findings indicated that of all the new urbanist design strategies, only the neighborhood business center was positively related to bridging ties. Conversely, a negative relationship was found between resident's who use their porches and bridging ties.

An on-site simulation-based practice lab was conducted with 42 students enrolled in a blended distance practical nursing diploma program at the end of their first year of study, prior to their clinical placements. The six-hour practice lab involved an orientation, small group activities involving three obstetric-related scenarios using the moderate fidelity simulator Noelle®, and a debriefing activity. An evening social activity was also provided. The study used a mixed method research design involving both quantitative and qualitative methods. Data were collected using a demographic questionnaire, a 20-item pre-test/post-test knowledge quiz, and three National League for Nursing (NLN) instruments — the Simulation Design Scale, the Educational Practices in Simulation Scale, and the Learner Satisfaction and Self-Confidence in Learning Scale — as well as a pre- and post-lab administration of Rovai’s (2002b) Classroom Community Scale. The qualitative component of the study involved semi-structured interviews with 25 students, three lab facilitators, and five clinical placement instructors. Analysis of data collected before and after the simulation-based lab revealed a significant increase in knowledge and sense of community in the group as a whole. Analysis of the results of the NLN instruments indicated that the simulation-based practice lab was instructionally effective. Students were highly positive in their ratings of the design elements and implementation of the simulation-based practice lab, satisfied with the simulation-based learning activities, and confident in their ability to provide patient care. The qualitative analysis added a rich, descriptive understanding of how the simulation-based practice lab promoted instructional effectiveness (i.e., skills and knowledge, confidence, and learner satisfaction), preparation for clinical placement, and community cohesion. Thematic analysis of the interview data identified the following major themes: benefits to distance learners, nurse-patient interaction, theory to practice, positive experience, sense of community, and supportive learning (student interviews); benefits of simulation experience, facilitator role, and technology (facilitator interviews); and theory to practice, positive experience, and sense of community (clinical instructor interviews). This research supports the use of on-site simulation-based practice labs as a means to provide greater readiness for clinical practice and strengthen the sense of community among distance learners. / 2012-06

In October of 1998 the category 5 storm, Hurricane Mitch, struck Nicaragua, leaving in its wake mass destruction and devastation. Numerous aid agencies and social organisations poured funds into the country to assist in emergency disaster relief efforts, and to rebuild the lives of those who lost their homes and livelihoods (damnificados). El Mirador in the city of Matagalpa is one example of the many communities built with aid monies after Hurricane Mitch. This thesis uses qualitative data constructed from in-depth interviews with participants (community members in El Mirador) to understand the level of successful community development that has been achieved, the ability for longer term sustainability as a result of community development strategies, and the areas in which community development has failed. Through an examination of the relationship the community has with the NGO the Communal Movement, the question of long term sustainability becomes important. The most telling indicator (that development practice is unsustainable) is the unproductive coping mechanisms of community members as aid and social organisations withdraw leaving members with ineffective social networks and at times uncooperative behaviour. Added into this is the arrival of new members into the community, and squatters, who have only added to the feelings of segregation already apparent, as a 'them and us' mentality develops. This study provides a detailed case specific analysis of community development through disaster relief efforts. It highlights some of the consistent, broad inefficiencies as well as more location and situation specific difficulties of community development. Moreover, it adds to the growing body of literature researching how disaster relief can become more effective and sustainable in the longer term.