Endohedral metalofullerenes (EMFs) have emerged as an important class of nanomaterials with vast promise in applications of molecular devices and nanomedicines. This dissertation addresses the EMF research span from synthesis to application, with an emphasis of work on trimetallic nitride template (TNT) EMF and carbide clusterfullerenes (CCFs). As a general introduction, chapter 1 reviews the main literature in TNT EMF studies. Also key works in CCF area are highlighted to show the common feature and uniqueness of this class of EMF in comparison with other EMFs. In the last part of the chapter a list of milestone progress in EMF area has been summarized. Chapter 2 is devoted to the synthetic work on EMFs. Especially, for isotopic modification, the trial and actual EMF syntheses in efforts to introduce 13C, 89Y and 177Lu are described. The next three chapters address the structural characterization of EMFs. Chapter 3 focuses on structural studies of CCFs. With detailed interpretation of 13C NMR and DFT computational results for selected members of the Y2C2@C2n family, the influence of fullerene cage on the size and shape of the yttrium carbide cluster (Y2C2)4+ is investigated. It has also been established that the carbide cluster prefers a linear shape in sufficiently large fullerene cages but adopts a compressed butterfly shape in smaller cages where space is constrained. Chapter 4 presents a systemic examination of dipole moments in TNT EMFs. The first 13C NMR study of M3N@C2(22010)-C78 is achieved on Y3N@C2(22010)-C78. In addition, dipole moments of the M3N@C2n (n=39-44) family are probed by interpretation of chromatographic retention behavior, DFT computational results and single-crystal data. It has been found that TNT EMFs with pentalene motifs exhibit enhanced dipole moments due to the cluster-cage interplay. Chapter 5 provides full characterization of the M2C2@C1(51383)-C84 (M=Y, Gd) molecule, which contains the first example of an asymmetric fullerene cage with fused pentagons. Furthermore, it is suggested that the C1(51383)-C84 cage is capable of a cascade of rearrangements into high symmetry and stable fullerene cages via well-established mechanistic steps, namely, extrusion of C2 units from pentalene or indene motifs and Stone-Wales transformations. As an important intermediate in the formation of high symmetry fullerene cages, the C1(51383)-C84 represents a missing link that implies the "top-down" fullerene formation mechanism. Chapter 6 describes the endeavor to functionalize two exotic EMFs, the room-temperature radical heterometallofullerene Gd2@C79N, and the egg-shaped TNT EMF Gd3N@C84. The reactivity of Gd2@C79N is directly compared to Y2@C79N, Gd3N@C80 and Sc3N@C80 in two reactions and the paramagnetic Gd2@C79N is proven to be very inert toward many known common fullerene cage reactions. Eventually both EMFs have been successfully functionalized via the Bingel reaction, and the derivatives are characterized with HPLC and mass-spectrometry. Chapter 7 compares the effective magnetic moment of Gd3N@C80 and Gd3N@C84, together with the previously reported Gd@C82. The magnetic moment has a second-order contribution to the T1 relaxivity and thereby is an important factor to evaluate an EMF's value in application as MRI contrast agents. Furthermore the influence of cluster motion to magnetic behavior in TNT EMF is discussed. / Ph. D.

Superparamagnetic nanoparticles have potential applications in targeted drug delivery and as magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents. Magnetite clusters are of particular interest for these applications because they provide higher magnetic flux (under a magnetic field) than individual magnetite nanoparticles, are biocompatible, and their size and compositions can be controlled. This thesis involves the controlled synthesis and characterization of clusters composed of magnetite nanoparticles stabilized with an amphiphilic block copolymer. It outlines a method to design and form well-defined and colloidally stable magnetite clusters. A Multi Inlet Vortex mixer (MIVM) was used because it is a continuous process that yields particles with relatively narrow and controlled size distributions. In the MIVM, four liquid streams collide under turbulent conditions in the mixing chamber where clusters form within milliseconds. The formation of magnetite clusters was studied in the presence of amphiphilic block copolymers containing poly (ethylene oxide) to provide steric stabilization and control of size distributions using flash nanoprecipitation. First, the mixer was tested using β-carotene as a model compound to form nanoparticles stabilized with an amphiphilic triblock copolymer poly(propylene oxide)-b-poly(ethylene oxide) (F127) at different Reynolds numbers and supersaturation values. Size analysis was done using dynamic light scattering and nanoparticle tracking analysis techniques. The cluster structure was studied using electron microscopy and magnetite compositions were measured using thermogravimetric analysis. Finally, the stability of magnetite clusters was studied over time and the effect of an applied magnetite field on the colloidal stability was investigated. / Master of Science

Les techniques d'imagerie multimodale peuvent apporter une grande richesse d'information. Cette thèse est consacrée au développement et à la caractérisation de nanoparticules qui peuvent être utilisées en tant que marqueurs luminescents, pour la détection d'oxydants et comme agents de contraste pour l'imagerie à résonance magnétique. Ces travaux sont basés sur des études précédentes concernant des nanoparticules de composition Y0,6Eu0,4VO4, qui présentent une forte luminescence stable sans clignotement. La détection optique d'oxydants résolue temporellement et spatialement se base sur la photoréduction réversible d'Eu3+ vers Eu2+ et la réoxydation d'Eu2+ vers Eu3+ induite par exemple par H2O2. Cette oxydation est détectable suite à une modification des propriétés de luminescence. L'incorporation de Gd3+ paramagnétique permet l'accélération de la relaxation de l'aimantation des protons. Nous avons synthétisé des nanoparticules de 10 nm et 40 nm de diamètre de composition GdVO4 et Gd0,6Eu0,4VO4, ainsi que des systèmes cœur-coquille contenant un cœur de Y0,6Eu0,4VO4 et une coquille de GdVO4 avec un diamètre total de 40 nm. L'analyse microstructurale par rayons X combinée avec la diffusion dynamique de la lumière et la microscopie électronique à balayage nous a permis de proposer un modèle liant la forme des nanoparticules à celle des cristallites les composant. La titration complexométrique a indiqué que le taux de relargage de terres rares est négligeable, ce qui rend envisageable l'utilisation de nanoparticules de ce type pour des applications in vivo. Nous avons démontré que les nanoparticules conservent, même après substitution de Y3+ par Gd3+, la capacité de détecter H2O2 par une modification de leur luminescence. Des mesures de l'aimantation des nanoparticules Gd0,6Eu0,4VO4 en fonction du champ et de la température ont confirmé leur comportement paramagnétique conforme à une loi de Curie-Weiss dans une gamme de température allant de 290 K à 5 K. Nous avons trouvé que la relaxivité par rapport aux protons induite par les nanoparticules GdVO4 et Gd0,6Eu0,4VO4 d'un diamètre de 10 nm est plus importante que pour le composé commercial chélaté Dotarem®. Des mesures de dispersion de relaxation magnétique nucléaire ont indiqué une relaxivité plus élevée pour les nanoparticules composées de Gd0,6Eu0,4VO4 par rapport à celles de GdVO4. Les données actuelles indiquent que les nanoparticules de vanadate de terres rares contenant simultanément Gd et Eu sont des candidats prometteurs pour une application in vivo en tant que sonde multifonctionelle. Ce système pourrait également être utile comme cible pour la thérapie par capture de neutrons utilisant les ions de gadolinium ou pour la tomographie par émission de positrons.

L’objectif de cette thèse a été de synthétiser, caractériser et évaluer l’efficacité de photosensibilisateurs (PS) activables par excitation mono- et bi-photonique pour la thérapie photodynamique (PDT). Les PSs sont des dérivés de porphyrines qui ont été associés à différents composés incluants des sondes d’imagerie, des vecteurs, ou des nanoparticules, dans le but d’améliorer l’efficacité du traitement. Un PS a ainsi été relié à deux complexes de Gd(III) pour former un agent moléculaire théranostique afin de pouvoir suivre l’évolution de la PDT par imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM). Cet agent théranostique conserve les bonnes propriétés photophysiques du PS et sa relaxivité remarquable permet l’imagerie à des concentrations plus faibles que les agents de contraste commerciaux. L’association d’un PS avec un vecteur, l’acide folique ou la biotine, a permis d’augmenter la sélectivité envers les cellules cancéreuses. L’augmentation de la phototoxicité envers des cellules HeLa pour ces deux PSs par rapport au PS non vectorisé montre le potentiel de ces deux PSs vectorisés pour la PDT par excitation mono et bi-photonique. Enfin, plusieurs PS ont été liés ou incorporés dans des cubosomes pour améliorer leur biodistribution et leurs phototoxicités ont été étudiées. Ces études montrent pour la première fois la possibilité d’utiliser des cubosomes comme formulation pour les PSs. / The aim of this thesis was to synthesize, characterize and evaluate the efficiency of new photosensitizers (PS) for Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) activated by a one- or two-photon absorption. Theses PSs are composed of π-extended porphyrins linked to imaging probes, targeting moieties or nanoparticles to improve the treatment efficiency. A PS was linked to two Gd(III) complexes to form a molecular theranostic agent allowing the monitoring of the PDT outcome by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). This molecular theranostic agent retains the good photophysical properties of the PS and its high relaxivity allows the imaging at a lower concentration than the commercial contrast agents. In order to increase the selectivity towards cancer cells a PS was linked to folic acid or biotin, two targeting compounds. The increase of the phototoxicity towards HeLa cells of these two targeted PSs compared to a non-targeted PS reveals the potential for one- and two-photon PDT. Finally, several PSs have been linked to cubosomes to increase the biodistribution and their phototoxicity has been investigated. This study shows for the first time that cubosomes can be used as a formulation for PSs.

"Diagnostik vergrößerter Halslymphknoten mit der farbkodierten Dopplersonographie und dem Power-Doppler nativ sowie nach Applikation eines neuen Ultraschallkontrastmittels" Halslymphknotenvergrößerungen kommen bei Patienten mit Malignomen im MKG- und HNO-Bereich einerseits als reaktive Lymphknotenveränderungen im Abflußgebiet des Primärtumors vor, andererseits können sie metastatisch befallen sein und damit die weitere Therapie und die Prognose der Patienten entscheidend beeinflussen. Mit der B-Bild-Sonographie allein wurden bislang keine eindeutigen Malignitätszeichen etabliert; mit der FKDS blieb die Darstellung der intranodalen Gefäßsituation im Verlauf der Lymphknotenmetastasierung unbefriedigend. Wir untersuchten in unserer Studie die Möglichkeiten, die sich mit der FKDS und dem Power-Doppler nativ und nach Applikation eines stabileren und lungengängigen Echosignalverstärkers für die Diagnostik malignitätsverdächtiger Halslymphknoten ergeben. 40 Patienten mit malignitätsverdächtigen Halslymphknoten (34 Patienten mit gesichertem Plattenepithelkarzinom im MKG- oder HNO-Bereich) wurden im B-Bild sowie in der FKDS und im PD vor und nach Applikation von LevovistR (Schering AG, Berlin) untersucht. Metastasen waren signifikant größer und häufiger rundlich als ovalär als reaktiv vergrößerte Lymphknoten. Korrelationen von Echogenität und Binnenstruktur mit der Lymphknotendignität ergaben sich nicht. Der Vaskularisationsgrad kann nicht zur Dignitätsfeststellung genutzt werden. Signifikante Korrelationen zeigten sich für die Vaskularisationsmorphologie und die Lymphknotendignität. FKDS und PD unterschieden sich nach KM signifikant bezüglich der Beurteilung der Vaskularisationsmorphologie. Nach KM konnten im Power-Doppler alle Lymphknoten bezüglich ihres Perfusionsmusters beurteilt werden. Die FKDS zeigte nach Kontrastmittelapplikation weniger gute Ergebnisse. Innerhalb der Diagnostik metastasenverdächtiger Lymphknoten empfehlen wir die Betrachtung von Größe und Form der Lymphknoten im B-Bild und die Beurteilung der Vaskularisationsmorphologie in der FKDS und im PD. Im Fall einer nicht detektierbaren Perfusion oder eines bei Hypovaskularisation nicht beurteilbaren Perfusionsmusters sollte die Applikation eines Echosignalverstärkers und die Darstellung mit dem PD erfolgen. / "Diagnosis of enlarged cervical lymph nodes with color Doppler sonography and power Doppler before and after application of a new ultrasonic contrast agent" Enlargement of cervical lymph nodes of patients with cancer of the head and neck region can be either caused by reactive changings in the region of the primary tumor or by metastasis. It is one of the most important factors for therapy and prognosis of those patients. Up to now definite criteria of malignancy couldn`t be established by B-mode sonography. Description of the intranodal vascular changes during the course of metastatic invasion keeps on being unsatisfactory by color Doppler ultrasound (US). In our study we examined the new perspectives in the diagnosis of suspected metastatic disease by color-coded US and power Doppler US before and after the injection of a stable echo enhancing agent capable of traversing the cardiopulmonary circulation. 40 patients with suspected cervical lymph node metastasis were examined (34 with squamous cell carcinoma) with B-mode US, color Doppler US and power Doppler US before and after the i.v. application of Levovist registered (Schering, Berlin, Germany). Lymph node metastases were significantly larger and more often roundly shaped than reactively enlarged lymph nodes. Significant correlations of echogenicity and morphologic structure could not be demonstrated. The degree of perfusion cannot be used for the differential diagnosis of lymph node enlargement. There was significant correlation between pattern of vascularization and lymph node dignity. Concerning the architecture of vascularization a significant differentiation of color Doppler US and power Doppler US could be observed. In contrast to color Doppler US, by power Doppler US it was possible to assess the perfusion of all lymph nodes after the application of Levovist registered. For the differential diagnosis of suspected cervical lymph node metastases we therefore recommend a sonographic examination of volume and shape by B-mode US and of pattern of vascularization by color Doppler US and power Doppler US. In case of no detectable perfusion or unclear pattern in hypoperfusion we propose echo-enhanced examination with power Doppler US.

Au cours des dernières années, l’imagerie médicale est devenue l’une des techniques les plus puissantes dans le domaine du diagnostic médical et des recherches biomédicales. Avec le développement de l’imagerie moléculaire, les sondes sensibles permettant l’imagerie multimodale des événements moléculaires sont alors nécessaires.Dans ce travail, nous présentons la conception et la synthèse des complexes de lanthanides dans le but de développer des agents de contraste intelligents pour la détection de l’activité enzymatique par IRM (T1/CEST) et l’imagerie optique. Les complexes conçus s’articulent autour d’un chélate de lanthanide macrocyclique joint avec une amino pyridine qui est liée à un déclencheur enzymatique sensible (e.g. galactoside) par un espaceur auto-immolatif. Celui-ci est censé modifier temporairement, en fonction de la présence d’enzyme, les propriétés magnétiques et photo-physiques du complexe. Le concept a été validé sur un composé modèle sans déclencheur. Bien qu’aucune différence de relaxation n’ait été observée entre les modèles de forme enzymatique activée et non-activée qui empêche l’utilisation de T1-IRM, des effets ParaCEST différents dépendant du lanthanide, ont été observé. En outre, un effet CEST inconnu a été affecté à la fonction carbamate. Des études photo-physiques préliminaires ont montré également des propriétés différentes des deux formes et ont confirmé le potentiel de ces complexes comme agents de contraste enzymatiques sensibles bimodals. La synthèse de la sonde enzymatique sensible a été tenté par trois voies différentes et a finalement été effectué dans un processus de treize étape qui restait à être optimisé. Une étude sur la relation ‘structure-activité’ a été lancée avec la synthèse des isomères de position sur la pyridine du composé modèle / Over the last decade, medical imaging has evolved into one of the most powerful technique in diagnostic clinical medicine and biomedical researches. With the development of molecular imaging responsive probes allowing multimodal imaging of molecular events are then required.In this work, we present the design and the synthesis of lanthanide complexes with the aim of developing smart contrast agents for the detection of enzyme activity by MRI (T1 / CEST) and Optical Imaging. The designed complexes are built around a macrocyclic lanthanide chelate appended with an amino pyridine which is linked to an enzyme-sensitive trigger (e.g. galactoside) via a self-immolative linker. The latter is supposed to modify temporarily and in an enzyme dependent way the magnetic and photo-physical properties of the complex. The concept was first validated on a model compound without trigger. Although no difference of relaxivity was observed between models of the enzyme-activated and non-activated forms precluding the use in T1-MRI, different paraCEST effects were observed and found dependent on the lanthanide. Moreover, a previously unknown CEST effect was assigned to a carbamate function. Preliminary photo-physical studies showed also a different behavior of the two forms and confirmed the potentiality of these complexes as enzyme responsive bimodal contrast agent. The synthesis of the enzyme-responsive probe has been attempted by three different pathways and was finally achieved in a thirteen-step process which remained to be optimized. A “structure activity” relationship study has been initiated with the synthesis of positional isomers on the pyridine of the model compound

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is regularly used to obtain anatomical images, greatly advancing biomedical research and clinical health care today, but its full potential in providing functional, physiological, and molecular information is only beginning to emerge. The goal of magnetic resonance molecular imaging is to utilize MRI to acquire information on the molecular level. This dissertation is focused on ways to increase the use of MRI for molecular imaging using superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticle induced MRI contrast. This work is divided into three main sections: <B>1)<I> Elucidation of the contribution of size and coating properties to magnetic nanoparticle induced proton relaxation.</I></B> To maximize contrast generated without increasing particle size, new methods to increase effects on relaxivity must be developed. Experimental data obtained on a new class of biocompatible particles are presented, along with simulated data. The effects of coating size, proton exchange, and altered diffusion are examined. Simulations are presented confirming the effect of particle coatings on clustering-induced relaxivity changes, and an experimental system demonstrating the clustering effect is presented. <B>2)<I> Development of a diffusion-dependent, off-resonance imaging protocol for magnetic nanoparticles.</I></B> This work demonstrates an alternative approach, off-resonance saturation (ORS), for generating contrast sensitive to SPIO nanoparticles. This method leads to a calculated contrast that increases with SPIO concentration. Experimental data and a mathematical model demonstrate and characterize this diffusion-dependent, off-resonance effect. Dependence on off-resonance frequency and power are also investigated. <B>3)<I> Development of a genetic MRI marker via in vivo magnetic nanoparticle synthesis.</I></B> This work seeks to provide a gene expression marker for MRI based on bacterial magnetosomes, tiny magnets produced by naturally occurring magnetotactic bacteria. Here, <I>magA</I> is expressed in a commonly used human cell line, 293FT, resulting in the production of magnetic, iron oxide nanoparticles by these cells. MRI shows these particles can be formed <I>in vivo</I> utilizing endogenous iron and can be used to visualize cells positive for <I>magA</I>. These results demonstrate <I>magA</I> alone is sufficient to produce magnetic nanoparticles and that it is an appropriate candidate for an MRI reporter gene.

Photoacoustic tomography (PAT), as well as thermoacoustic tomography (TAT), utilize electromagnetic radiation in its visible, near infrared, microwave, and radiofrequency forms, respectively, to induce acoustic waves in biological tissues for imaging purposes. Combining the advantages of both the high image contrast that results from electromagnetic absorption and the high resolution of ultrasound imaging, these new imaging modalities could be the next successful imaging techniques in biomedical applications. Basic research on PAT and TAT, and the relevant physics, is presented in Chapter I. In Chapter II, we investigate the imaging mechanisms of TAT in terms of signal generation, propagation and detection. We present a theoretical analysis as well as simulations of such imaging characteristics as contrast and resolution, accompanied by experimental results from phantom and tissue samples. In Chapter III, we discuss the further application of TAT to the imaging of biological tissues. The microwave absorption difference in normal and cancerous breast tissues, as well as its influence on thermoacoustic wave generation and the resulting transducer response, is investigated over a wide range of electromagnetic frequencies and depths of tumor locations. In Chapter IV, we describe the mechanism of PAT and the algorithm used for image reconstruction. Because of the broad bandwidth of the laser-induced ultrasonic waves and the limited bandwidth of the single transducer, multiple ultrasonic transducers, each with a different central frequency, are employed for simultaneous detection. Chapter V further demonstrates PAT’s ability to image vascular structures in biological tissue based on blood’s strong light absorption capability. The photoacoustic images of rat brain tumors in this study clearly reveal the angiogenesis that is associated with tumors. In Chapter VI, we report on further developing PAT to image deeply embedded optical heterogeneity in biological tissues. The improved imaging ability is attributed to better penetration by NIR light, the use of the optical contrast agent ICG (indocyanine green) and a new detection scheme of a circular scanning configuration. Deep penetrating PAT, which is based on a tissue’s intrinsic contrast using laser light of 532 nm green light and 1.06 µm near infrared light, is also presented.

The cell infiltration into the myocardial infarction (MI) site was studied using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with micrometer-sized iron oxide particles (MPIO) as cell labeling probes. MI is a leading cause of global death and disability. However, the roles of inflammatory cells and stem cells during the post-MI remodeling and repair processes are yet to be discovered. This study was to develop noninvasive MRI techniques to monitor and quantify the cellular infiltration into the MI site. MPIO can produce pronounced signal attenuation at regions of interest in MRI. Therefore, cells labeled with these particles can be detected after they are activated and home to the MI site. In the first project, MPIO of various doses were injected into the mouse blood stream 7 days before the MI surgery. Serial MRI was performed at various time points post-MI to monitor the inflammatory cell infiltration into the MI site. Significant signal attenuation caused by labeled cells, in particular macrophages, was observed at the MI site. The study suggests an optimal imaging window should be from 7 to 14 days post-MI, during which the MR signal was inversely proportional to the MPIO dose. The study also suggests an optimal MPIO dose should be between 9.1 and 14.5 µg Fe/g body weight. In the second project, mesenchymal stem cells labeled with MPIO were transplanted into the mouse bone marrow 14 days before the MI surgery. Serial MRI was performed at various time points post-MI to monitor the labeled cells, which mobilized from the bone marrow and homed to the MI site. All the MRI findings were further confirmed by histology. In addition to revealing the characteristics of cell infiltration during MI, this study also provides noninvasive MRI techniques to monitor and potentially quantify labeled cells at the pathological site. The technique can also be used to investigate the function of cells engaged in MI and to test the effect on cell infiltration caused by any treatment strategies.

Thirty-four patients with acute hemispheric ischemic strokes underwent both CT angiography and contrast-enhanced transcranial color-coded duplexsonography (TCCD) to study the effectiveness of the combined noninvasive techniques for evaluation of the circle of Willis. In 3/34 patients, CT angiography and contrast-enhanced TCCD demonstrated middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion, in 5 others MCA stenosis. A severe posterior cerebral artery stenosis was missed by CT angiography. In 8 patients, contrast-enhanced TCCD failed because of poor bone windows. In these patients, CT angiography was normal. CT angiography and contrast-enhanced TCCD are complementary noninvasive diagnostic tools. Disagreements between the diagnostic findings of these methods still need further evaluation by digital subtraction angiography. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.