Thesis (PhD(Agric))--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Postharvest quality of fresh table grapes is usually preserved through cooling using cold air. However, cooling efficiencies are affected by the multi-scale packaging that is commercially used for handling grapes after harvest. There is usually spatial temperature variability of grapes that often results in undesirable quality variations during postharvest handling and marketing. This heterogeneity of grape berry temperature inside multi-packages is largely due to uneven cold airflow patterns that are caused by airflow resistance through multi-package components. The aims of this study were therefore to conduct an in-depth experimental investigation of the contribution of grape multi-packaging components to total airflow resistance, cooling rates and patterns of grapes inside the different commercially used multi-packages, and to assess the effects of these multi-packages on table grape postharvest quality attributes. A comprehensive study of moisture loss from grapes during postharvest storage and handling, as well as a preliminary investigation of the applicability of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling in predicting the transport phenomena of heat and mass transfer of grapes during cooling and cold storage in multi-packages were included in this study. Total pressure drop through different table grapes packages were measured and the percentage contribution of each package component and the fruit bulk were determined. The liner films contributed significantly to total pressure drop for all the package combinations studied, ranging from 40.33±1.15% for micro-perforated liner film to 83.34±2.13 % for non-perforated liner film. The total pressure drop through the grape bulk (1.40±0.01 % to 9.41±1.23 %) was the least compared to the different packaging combinations with different levels of liner perforation. The cooling rates of grapes in the 4.5 kg multi-packaging were significantly (P<0.05) slower than that of grapes in 5 kg punnet multi-packaging, where the 4.5 kg box resulted in a seven-eighths cooling time of 30.30-46.14% and 12.69-25.00% more than that of open-top and clamshell punnet multi-packages, respectively. After 35 days in cold storage at -0.5°C, grape bunches in the 5 kg punnet box combination (open-top and clamshell) had weight loss of 2.01 – 3.12%, while the bunches in the 4.5 kg box combination had only 1.08% weight loss. During the investigation of the effect of different carton liners on the cooling rate and quality attributes of ‘Regal seedless’ table grapes in cold storage, the non-perforated liner films maintained relative humidity (RH) close to 100 %. This high humidity inside non-perforated liner films resulted in delayed loss of stem quality but significantly (P ≤ 0.05) increased the incidence of SO2 injury and berry drop during storage compared to perforated liners. The perforated liners improved fruit cooling rates but significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced RH. The low RH in perforated liners also resulted in an increase in stem dehydration and browning compared to non-perforated liners. The moisture loss rate from grapes packed in non-perforated liner films was significantly (P<0.05) lower compared to the moisture loss rate from grapes packed in perforated liner films (120 x 2 mm and 36 x 4 mm). The effective moisture diffusivity values for stem parts packed in non-perforated liner films were lower than the values obtained for stem parts stored without packaging liners, and varied from 5.06x10-14 to 1.05x10-13 m2s-1. The dehydration rate of stem parts was inversely proportional to the size (diameter) of the stem parts. Dehydration rate of stems exposed (without liners) to circulating cold air was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the dehydration rates of stems packed in non-perforated liner film. Empirical models were successfully applied to describe the dehydration kinetics of the different parts of the stem. The potential of cold storage humidification in reducing grape stem dehydration was investigated. Humidification delayed and reduced the rate of stem dehydration and browning; however, it increased SO2 injury incidence on table grape bunches and caused wetting of the packages. The flow phenomenon during cooling and handling of packed table grapes was also studied using a computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model and validated using experimental results. There was good agreement between measured and predicted results. The result demonstrated clearly the applicability of CFD models to determine optimum table grape packaging and cooling procedures. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Naoes kwaliteit van vars tafeldruiwe word gewoonlik behou deur middel van verkoeling van die produk met koue lug. Ongelukkig word die effektiwiteit van dié verkoeling beïnvloed deur die multivlakverpakking wat kommersieel gebruik word vir die naoes hantering van druiwe. Daar is gewoonlik ruimtelike variasie in die temperatuur van die druiwe wat ongewenste variasie in die kwaliteit van die druiwe veroorsaak tydens naoes hantering en bemarking. Die heterogene druiwetemperature binne die multivlakverpakkings word grootliks veroorsaak deur onegalige lugvloeipatrone van die koue lug as gevolg van die weerstand wat die verskillende komponente van die multivlakverpakkings teen lugvloei bied. Die doel van hierdie studie was dus om ‘n indiepte eksperimentele ondersoek te doen om die bydrae van multivlakverpakking op totale lugvloeiweerstand, verkoelingstempo’s en –patrone van druiwe binne kommersieël gebruikte multivlakverpakkings te ondersoek, asook die effek van die multivalkverpakking op die naoes kwaliteit van druiwe te bepaal. ‘n Omvattende studie van vogverlies van druiwe tydens naoes opberging en hantering, asook ‘n voorlopige ondersoek na die bruikbaarheid van ‘n berekende vloei dinamika (BVD) model om die bewegingsfenomeen van hitte en massa oordrag van druiwe tydens verkoeling en koelopberging in multivlakverpakkings te voorspel, was ook by die studie ingesluit. Die totale drukverskil deur verskillende tafeldruif verpakkingssisteme is gemeet en die persentasie wat deur elke verpakkingskomponent en die vruglading bygedra is, is bereken. Van al die verpakkingskombinasies wat gemeet is, het die voeringfilms betekenisvol tot die totale drukverskil bygedra, en het gewissel van 40.33±1.15% vir die mikro geperforeerde voeringfilm tot 83.34±2.13 % vir die nie-geperforeerde voeringfilm. Die totale drukverskil oor die druiflading (1.40±0.01 % to 9.41±1.23 %) was die minste in vergelyking met die verskillende verpakkingskombinasies met die verskillende vlakke van voeringperforasies. Die verkoelingstempos van die druiwe in die 4.5 kg multiverpakking was betekenisvol (P<0.05) stadiger as vir die druiwe in die 5 kg handmandjie (‘punnet’) multiverpakking. Die 4.5 kg karton het ‘n seweagstes verkoelingstyd van 30.30-46.14% en 12.69-25.00% langer, respektiewelik, as oop-vertoon en toeslaan-‘punnet’ multiverpakkings gehad. Na 35 dae van koelopberging by -0.5°C het druiwetrosse in die 5 kg ‘punnet’-kartonkombinasies (oop-vertoon en toeslaan-’punnet’) ‘n massaverlies van 2.01 – 3.12% gehad, terwyl die trosse in die 4.5 kg kartonkombinasie slegs ‘n 1.08% massaverlies gehad het. In die ondersoek na die effek van verskillende kartonvoerings op die verkoelingstempo en kwaliteitseienskappe van ‘Regal seedless’ tafeldruiwe tydens koelopbering, het die nie-geperforeerde kartonvoerings ‘n relatiewe humiditeit (RH) van byna 100 % gehandhaaf. Hierdie hoë humiditeit in die nie-geperforeerde voeringfilms het ‘n verlies in stingelkwaliteit vertraag, maar het die voorkoms van SO2-skade en loskorrels betekenisvol (P < 0.05) verhoog in vergelyking met geperforeerde voerings. Die geperforeerde voerings het vrugverkoelingstempos verbeter, maar het die RH betekenisvol (P ≤ 0.05) verlaag. Die lae RH in die geperforeerde voerings het gelei tot ‘n verhoging in stingeluitdroging en –verbruining in vergelyking met die nie-geperforeerde voerings. Die vogverliestempo uit druiwe verpak in nie-geperforeerde voeringfilms was betekenisvol (P<0.05) stadiger in vergelyking met druiwe verpak in geperforeerde voeringfilms (120 x 2 mm and 36 x 4 mm). Die effektiewe vogdiffusiewaardes vir stingelgedeeltes verpak in nie-geperforeerde voeringfilms was stadiger as vir stingelgedeeltes wat verpak is sonder verpakkingsvoerings, en het gevarieer van 5.06x10-14 – 1.05x10-13 m2s-1. Die uitdrogingstempo van stingelgedeeltes was omgekeerd eweredig aan die grootte (deursnit) van die stingelgedeeltes. Die uitdrogingstempo van stingels wat blootgestel was (sonder voerings) aan sirkulerende koue lug was betekenisvol (P<0.05) hoër as die uitdrogingstempos van stingels wat verpak was in nie-geperforeerde voeringfilms. Empiriese modelle is gebruik om die uitdrogingskinetika van die verskillende stingelgedeeltes te beskryf. Die potensiaal van koelkamer humidifisering in die vermindering van die uitdroging van druifstingels is ondersoek. Humidifisering het stingeluitdroging vertraag en het die tempo van stingeluitdroging en -verbruining verminder, maar dit het die voorkoms van SO2-skade op die tafeldruiftrosse verhoog en het die verpakkings laat nat word. Die bewegingsfenomeen tydens verkoeling en hantering van verpakte tafeldruiwe is ook ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van ‘n BVD model en is bevestig met eksperimentele resultate. Daar was goeie ooreenstemming tussen gemete en voorspelde resultate. Die resultaat demonstreer duidelik die toepaslikheid van BVD-modelle om die optimum tafeldruifverpakkings- en verkoelingsprosedures te bepaal. / PPECB and Postharvest Innovation Programme (PHI-2) for their financial support

Improving the efficiency of conventional air-cooled solutions for Data Centers (DCs) is still a major thermal management challenge. Improvements can be made in two ways, through better (1) architectural design and (2) operation. There are three conventional DC cooling architectures: (a) room-based, (b) row-based, and (c) rack-based. Architectures (b) and (c) allows a modular DC design, where the ITE is within an enclosure containing a cooling unit. Due to scalability and ease of implementation, operational cost, and complexity, these modular systems have gained in popularity for many computing applications. However, the yet poor insight into their thermal management leads to limited strategies to scale the size of a DC facility for applications gaining in importance, e.g., edge and hyperscale. We improve the body of knowledge by comparing three cooling architecture’s power consumption. Energy efficiency during DC operation can be improved in two ways: (1) utilizing energy efficient control systems, (2) optimizing the arrangement of ITE. For both cases, a temperature prediction tool is required which can provide real-time information about the temperature distribution as a function of system parameters and the ITE arrangement. To construct such a prediction tool, we must develop a deeper understanding of the airflow, pressure and temperature distributions around the ITE and how these parameters change dynamically with IT load. As yet primitive tools have been developed, but only for architecture (a) listed above. These tools are not transferrable to other architectures due to significant differences in thermal-fluid transport. We examine the airflow and thermal transport within confined racks with separated cold and hot chambers that employ rack- or row-based cooling units, and then propose a parameter-free transient zonal model to obtain the real-time temperature distributions. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Η ηλιακή ενέργεια αποτελεί μια από τις κύριες Ανανεώσιμες Πηγές Ενέργειας (ΑΠΕ). Μπορεί να αξιοποιηθεί είτε μετατρεπόμενη σε ηλεκτρισμό είτε σε θερμότητα. Για τη μετατροπή της σε ηλεκτρισμό η κύρια τεχνολογία που χρησιμοποιείται είναι η τεχνολογία των φωτοβολταϊκών. Αντίστοιχα, για την μετατροπή της σε θερμότητα χρησιμοποιούνται ευρέως οι τεχνολογίες των επίπεδων θερμικών ηλιακών συλλεκτών και των θερμικών συλλεκτών σωλήνων κενού. Βασικό ζητούμενο και στις δύο περιπτώσεις αποτελεί η μεγιστοποίηση της αποδοτικότητας τους. Μια από τις μεθόδους που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την αύξηση της αποδοτικότητας μιας ηλιακής συσκευής είναι η χρήση ενισχυτικών ανακλαστήρων. Επίσης, στις συνήθεις τεχνολογίες φωτοβολταϊκών που εφαρμόζονται σήμερα, η μείωση της θερμοκρασίας λειτουργίας τους βελτιώνει την απόδοση τους. Η διπλωματική ερευνητική εργασία που ακολουθεί περιλαμβάνει τη συγκριτική μελέτη φωτοβολταϊκών διατάξεων, επίπεδων θερμικών συλλεκτών και συλλεκτών σωλήνων κενού. Μελετήθηκαν συστήματα φωτοβολταϊκών με τη χρήση διαφόρων μεθόδων ψύξης, ενεργητικών και παθητικών. Επίσης μελετήθηκε η αύξηση της αποδιδόμενης ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας των φωτοβολταϊκών με χρήση ενισχυτικών ανακλαστήρων (ημικατοπτρικός ανακλαστήρας, ανακλαστήρας αλουμινίου (ματ), λευκός ανακλαστήρας). Υλοποιήθηκαν συνδυαστικά συστήματα με ταυτόχρονη ψύξη και χρήση ενισχυτικού ανακλαστήρα και μελετήθηκε η συμπεριφορά τους. Ακόμα, μελετήθηκε η αύξηση της αποδιδόμενης θερμικής ενέργειας επίπεδου ηλιακού θερμικού συλλέκτη με προσθήκη ενισχυτικών ανακλαστήρων (καθρέπτης, ανακλαστήρας αλουμινίου και λευκός ανακλαστήρας). Τέλος, κατασκευάστηκε διάταξη θερμικού συλλέκτη σωλήνα κενού με επίπεδη ανακλαστική επιφάνεια. Πραγματοποιήθηκαν πειράματα με την προσθήκη ενισχυτικών ανακλαστήρων (ημικατοπτρικός ανακλαστήρας, ανακλαστήρας αλουμινίου και λευκός ανακλαστήρας) και μελετήθηκε η αύξηση της θερμικής απόδοσης του συλλέκτη. Με βάση τα αποτελέσματα των πειραμάτων, εξάγονται αντίστοιχα συμπεράσματα και παρατίθενται προτάσεις σχετικά με τις διατάξεις αυτές. / Solar energy is one of the main Renewable Energy Sources (RES). It can be utilized by being transformed into electricity or heat. The main technology used to transform solar energy into electricity is photovoltaics. Respectively, flat plate solar thermal collectors and evacuated tube solar thermal collectors are the technologies mostly used to transform solar energy into usable heat. One of the main concerns on both cases, is the maximization of their performance. The use of booster reflectors is one of the methods that can be implemented in order to increase the performance of a solar device. Also, a method to increase the performance of the main photovoltaic technologies used at the moment, is to cool them. The following diploma – research thesis includes the comparative study of photovoltaic systems, flat plate solar thermal collectors and evacuated tube solar thermal collectors. Photovoltaic systems with the use of various cooling methods, active and passive, were studied. The increase of the photovoltaic electrical output using booster reflectors (semi specular, aluminum reflector and white reflector) was also studied. Combined systems were implemented, with simultaneous cooling and usage of booster reflector, and their behavior was observed. In addition, the increase of the thermal output of a flat plate collector by using booster reflectors (mirror, aluminum reflector and white reflector) was studied. Finally, an evacuated tube solar thermal collector system with an embedded reflective surface was implemented. Experiments were carried out with the addition of booster reflectors (semi specular, aluminum reflector and white reflector) and the increase of the collector’s thermal output was measured. Based on the experimental results, conclusions and suggestions are made about these systems.

In the construction industry, concrete is the most common material, because of its good properties such as compressive strength and endurance. Concrete is a composition of several different materials where one of the main components is cement. When the hydration process starts, large amount of heat is generated. This leads to temperature rise within the structure. The heat development that takes place can become critical for massive structures such as dams and power plants, where natural cooling is not sufficient. This in combination with internal and external restraint resulting in tensions causing cracks in the structure. By controlling the temperature development, one can reduce the risk of cracking in massive structures. The controlling is divided into pre-cooling and post-cooling. Reduction of the risk for thermal cracking can be done in different ways. Parts of the cement in the concrete can be replaced by a pozzolan material such as silica fume, blast furnace slag or fly ash. Another method is to increase the size of the aggregates which makes it possible to reduce the cement content with remained strength. Cooling the aggregates or use of ice can also be used as a pre-cooling methods. The most common post-cooling method is the installation of cooling pipes. Pipes are installed between the reinforcement bars, in which one then pump through with cold water. This thesis aims at practicing the methods examined by Lagundžija &amp; Thiam (2017). Focusing on those results that proved to be most effective, i.e. the combination of fly ash, ice and large aggregates. The results retrieved during the tests shows a significant increase in the compressive strength when using a combination of fly ash, ice and large aggregates. This gives us the opportunity to reduce the initial cement content. Reducing the cement content is the most effective factor regarding the heat development. When replacing amounts of the water with ice, it can be seen that the initial casting temperature was reduced. Further studies can be done to find the right amount of reduction of the cement that can be done while maintaining the required compressive strength. / Inom byggbranschen är betong det mest förekommande materialet, detta tack vare dess goda egenskaper, som till exempel tryckhållfasthet och uthållighet. Betongen utgörs av flera olika beståndsdelar där den centrala komponenten är cement. När cementets hydratationsprocess startar utvecklas en markant värmeutveckling. Detta leder till temperaturhöjningar inuti den nygjutna konstruktionen. Värmeutvecklingen kan bli kritisk för grövre konstruktioner, som till exempel dammar och kraftverk, där naturlig avkylning inte är tillräcklig. Detta i kombination med att inre och yttre tvång resulterar i dragspänningar som orsakar sprickor i konstruktionen. Genom att styra temperaturutvecklingen kan man minska risken för sprickbildning i massiva konstruktioner. Styrningen delas in i förberedande kylning och efterkylning. Reduktion av risken för termisk sprickbildning kan ske på olika sätt. Delar av cementen i betongen kan ersättas med ett puzzolant material som till exempel silikatstoft, masugnsslagg eller flygaska. En annan metod är att öka ballaststorleken vilket gör det möjligt att minska cementhalten med kvarvarande hållfasthet. Man kan även kyla ballasten alternativt blanda in is i mixen för att sänka den initiala temperaturen. Den mest förekommande efterkylningsmetoden är installation av kylrör. Det monteras in rör mellan armeringsjärnen, vilket man sedan pumpar kallt vatten igenom. Denna uppsats syftar på att praktiskt tillämpa de metoder som undersöktes av Lagundžija &amp; Thiam (2017). Fokus på de resultat som visade sig vara mest effektiva, dvs kombinationen av flygaska, is och grov ballast. Resultaten som uppnåddes under de tester som utfördes visar en markant ökning i tryckhållfastheten vid användning av kombinationen med flygaska, is och grov ballast. Detta ger oss utrymmet att reducera den initiala cementhalten som används. Att minska cementinnehållet är den faktor som ger störst effekt gällande värmeutvecklingen. Fortsatta studier kan göras för att hitta rätt mängd reduktion av cementet som kan göras samtidigt som anvisad tryckhållfasthet bibehålls.