The focus of our study was to examine personal assistants and group home assistants experiences of stress at work, how they cope with stress and how it affects the relationship with the care recipient. The study is made out of a qualitative frame and based on interviews with two personal assistants and four group home assistants. Our theoretical perspectives consist of Aaron Antonovsky’s SOC theory, Richard Lazarus theory about coping and also sociologist Johan Asplund’s theory about social interaction. The result indicates that the experiences of stress are individual and varied among the participants while the presence of stress at work is a shared apprehension. The Main reasons for the emergence of stress are related to workload, diffuse information, work-tasks and staff exchange. Coping-strategies that are used to reduce the experiences of stress are spread between both problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping while the latter is more frequently applied. Social Support has a vital part in the staff’s management of stress. Colleagues, supervisors and other people in their close environment are presented as important resources.  Our final conclusion is that stress has an impact on the relationship with the recipient of care because of the close interaction they have with each other. The close interaction with the recipient of care may however itself be a powerful stress factor due to the fact that the work itself is characterized by close interaction and it would be an impossibility to not be affected by it.

The purpose of this study was to determine the sources of stress, support systems, coping strategies and psychological well-being of adolescents in a rural area, and to use this information to develop a coping and life skills programme. While all families face stressor events and crises, some are more likely than others to experience a series of challenges that threaten their functioning. Rural families often face a greater variety of stressor events on a more continues basis than do families in metropolitan areas (Dyk, 2003). Rural families do not have as many resources and services available lo address their problems as do urban families (Deavers & Hoppe, 2001). Farm schools suffer from a variety of shortages. Many schools suffer from a pressing shortage of space and educational aids and in most cases there is only one teacher for every 50 learners (Van Kleist, 2002). Some of the learners have to walk more than 1Okm to school everyday because of the lack of transport. Most schools lack proper sanitation and electricity. Recreational and cultural activities are curtailed through shortages of equipment and suitable locations. Education in life skills may contribute to the enhancement of life quality, The development of constructive coping strategies protects mental health and enhances bio psycho- social well-being in times of high stress. Previously it was assumed that each individual acquired these skills as part of growing up. Alas, the truth is that many people do not cope with life and never learned these skills. These skills should therefore be taught in a direct and systematic way, rather than being left to be learnt incidentally. The qualitative research design was based on a sample of 56 male and female adolescents between 1 2 and 16 years of age. The adolescents were from four farm schools situated in the Potchefstroom area. Sixteen learners were randomly selected for semi-structured interviews to obtain basic information for the pilot study. Approximately 37 learners took part in the programme. The learners attended Grades 4-7. The deve1opment of the programme was done in five phases. During phase one semi structured interviews were held with some of the learners. During phase two the interviews were evaluated thematically, The data was then organized into conceptual categories and was then analyzed. During phase three the programme was developed according to the themes derived from phase two. In phase four the programme was presented at the schools as a trial test. During phase five the programme underwent some changes according to the findings in phase four. The development of the programme went well, however presenting the programme was a more demanding task. Almost none of the participants could properly speak or understand Afrikaans or English. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007

Suicide is a complex phenomenon, which can be prevented if intensive and continuous research is being done to determine tendencies and to compile profiles of high-risk cases. Suicide prevention is currently a high priority in the South African Police Service (SAPS). In the Northern Cape various potential stressors, such as a high crime level, lack of resources and vast distances to travel are some of the challenges members of the police service face. Increased rates of post-traumatic stress, alcohol abuse, depression and suicides are found in research with police members. Research that was done in the SAPS shows that the number of suicide among police officers increased from 11 suicides per 10 000 during 1999 to 13 suicides per 10 000 during 2000. The numbers of suicides in the SAPS in the Northern Cape are of the highest of all the Provinces. Suicide ideation can be considered an early marker for more serious suicidal behaviour. However, there is a lack of empirical research systematically investigating suicide ideation and possible correlates thereof in the SAPS in the Northern Cape. This research investigated the relationship between suicide ideation, stress and coping within SAPS in the Northern Cape. The aim of this research was to determine the level of suicide ideation and possible correlates thereof. Further aims included predicting suicide ideation by meqs of stress and coping variables. The research method for this article consists out of a brief literature review and an empirical study. A cross sectional survey design was used. A random sample (n=274) as taken of members from police stations in the Northern Cape. The Adult Suicide Ideation Questionnaire (ASIQ), Police Stress Inventory (PSI), COPE Questionnaire and a biographical questionnaire were administered. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. Results indicated that 3.28 % of the sample showed serious levels of suicide ideation. It was shown that previous suicide attempts, medical status, passive coping, problem-focussed coping, police stressors and job demands could be used to predict suicide ideation. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

It is important to have a productive and healthy police service in South Africa and to research suicide ideation and burnout. The objectives of this research were to determine the relationship between suicide ideation, work stress and coping; to determine if work stress and coping can be used to predict suicide ideation; to determine the casual factors of suicide ideation; to determine if t he Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey (MBI-GS) is a valid and reliable instrument to measure burnout; to determine the relationship between work stress and burnout and to determine if coping strategies can moderate or mediate the relationship between work stress an burnout. A cross-sectional survey design was used. A random sample (n = 340) was taken from police stations in the Western Cape. The Adult Suicide Ideation Questionnaire (ASIQ), MBI-GS, Police Stress Inventory (PSI), COPE questionnaire and a biographical questionnaire were administered. The results showed that job stress can indeed cause suicide ideation, but that an individual's coping response is a critical component in the determining of the impact of a stressor. Suicide ideation correlates statistically significant with job demands and a lack of resources, and job stress and coping can be used to predict suicide ideation in the SAPS. Avoidance, alcohol misuse, the presence of a medical condition, a previous suicide attempt, and rank are variants which could predict suicide ideation in the SAPS. The MBI-GS is a reliable and valid measuring instrument. Job stress leads to higher levels of exhaustion, which in turn leads to higher levels o f cynicism and lower levels of professional efficacy. Coping strategies c an moderate or mediate the relationship between job stress and burnout. Recommendations for the prevention and management of suicide ideation and burnout have been made, as well as recommendations with regard to future research on suicide ideation and burnout in the SAPS in the Western Cape. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Not much research regarding burnout amongst clergy in South Africa has been done. Recently a shift in the direction of positive psychology or salutogenesis took place and which highlighted two relatively new constructs, namely sense of coherence and engagement. Previous research in the "Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk" (NG Church) found a correlation between sense of coherence and burnout. In the "Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk van Afrika" (NH Church) however, no research regarding burnout within a salutogenic paradigm was ever done. The general objective of this research was to determine the levels and relationship of sense of coherence, coping, burnout and engagement amongst ministers of the NH Church. A cross-sectional research design was used. The Orientation to Life Questionnaire (OLQ), COPE-Questionnaire (COPE), Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) were used as measuring instruments on a stratified random (proportional) sample (n = 200) of ministers of the NH Church and from which 87 useable responses were received. Structural equation modelling was applied on the MBI-HSS to confirm a three-factor model with best fit. Cronbach alpha coefficients, inter-item correlation coefficients and factor analysis were used to determine the reliability and validity of the measuring instruments. Descriptive statistics, Pearson-product correlation coefficients, canonical correlation coefficients, and analysis of variance were used to analyse the data. The results showed that high levels of sense of coherence, approach coping and high levels of engagement are related to low levels of burnout, while venting of emotions are related to high levels of burnout. It was also found that sense of coherence and coping predicted emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and personal accomplishment. Furthermore, it was found that levels of emotional exhaustion for ministers in the age group 25-29, were consistently lower than that of any other age group in the sample, while levels for the age group 50-65 were also lower than that for ministers in the age groups 30-39 and 40-49, but still higher than levels for age group 25-29. Limitations of the study and recommendations regarding the organisation and future research were indicated. / Thesis (MA (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Many children and adolescents in South Africa are being exposed as witnesses or are direct victims of violence in today's society. The purpose of this study is to explore what violent exposure adolescents have experienced and to develop a programme that includes coping skills, expression of emotion and communication. The research formed part of the FLAGH study. The research was done in the form of action research where the adolescents took part in the whole process of developing the programme. The study was done in four phases. In the first phase a random sample of 36 adolescents from Fikadibeng School in the North West Province were selected. They completed the Coping Responses Inventory-Youth Form, the Survey of exposure to community violence, Things I have seen and heard questionnaire and the Self-expression and control scales. In the second phase the programme was developed using the results of the pre-testing and a literature study on the effects of the exposure of violence on children. During the third phase the developed programme was pilot tested on a randomly selected group of the children and the post-testing took place in order to evaluate and adjust the programme according to the results found. Suggestion for the adjustment of the programme was done during the fourth phase of the study. Adolescents were largely exposed to community violence. They also displayed tendencies to internalize anger and used looking for guidance and cognitive avoidance as part of their coping repertoire. The programme proved to benefit the children in their coping with violence. It is recommended that for the future, larger groups of adolescents should be evaluated and programmes should be presented to a larger community in order to assist adolescent in their use of coping skills. / Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

The nursing profession in South Africa currently faces a climate of uncertainty and change as governments struggle to contain healthcare while improving access, equity and health outcomes. These factors are placing an extra burden on people in a profession that is already encapsulated by an above-average risk environment for burnout and occupational stress. This research emerges from the need to enhance the work wellness of employees in an already burdened profession. Enhancement of work wellness depends on the successful diagnosis of burnout, work engagement and occupational stress. To be able to measure these constructs, it is important to use reliable and valid instruments, taking into account the cultural diversity in a multicultural setting such as South Africa. No validated instruments in this regard exist for the nursing profession in South Africa. Furthermore, little information is available regarding these constructs and the relationship between them, including sense of coherence and coping strategies. The general aim of this study was to validate the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) and the Nursing Stress Indicator (NSI) for the nursing profession in South Africa; to analyse the differences between the levels of burnout and engagement of different biographical groups; to identify the major occupational stressors and to investigate the relationships between occupational stress, sense of coherence, coping, burnout and work engagement. A cross-sectional survey design was used, with stratified random samples (N = 818) taken of registered nurses in South Africa. The Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey. the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, the Nursing Stress Indicator, the Orientation to Life Questionnaire, the Coping Orientation for Problem Experienced Questionnaire, as well as a biographical questionnaire, was administered for the purpose of data collection. Cronbach alpha coefficients, exploratory factor analysis, Pearson product-moment correlations, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), t-tests, descriptive statistics and multiple regression analysis were employed to analyse the data. Exploratory factor analysis with target rotations resulted in a three-factor model of burnout, consisting of exhaustion, depersonalisation and personal accomplishment, and a one-factor model of work engagement. The scales showed acceptable construct equivalence and internal consistencies for all three language groups, except for one item in the engagement scale, where a significant lower score was noticed for the African language speaking group. Practically significant differences were found in the burnout and engagement levels of registered nurses with regard to their age and rank, and in the case of work engagement, also regarding the years spent in nursing. T-tests revealed that burnout and engagement levels were influenced by the occurrence of a medical condition and a lack of specialised training, and in the case of burnout, also by longer working hours (full-time employment). Registered nurses reported significantly high levels of stress relating to staff shortage, inadequate salaries and excessive administrative duties. Lack of organisational support and job demands were the strongest predictors of burnout (emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation), together with a weak sense of coherence. Focus on and ventilation of emotions as a coping strategy was also related to emotional exhaustion. Low levels of burnout were found to be related to high levels of engagement. Multiple regression analysis revealed that occupational stress, a weak sense of coherence, approach coping, focus on and ventilation of emotions, and low seeking of emotional/social support predicted 33% of the variance in emotional exhaustion. Twenty-seven percent of the variance in depersonalisation was predicted by occupational stress, a weak sense of coherence, avoidance coping, focus on and ventilation of emotions, and a low turning to religion. Occupational stress because of job demands, a weak sense of coherence, approach coping strategies, focus on and ventilation of emotion, in the absence of avoidance as a coping strategy, predicted 17% of the variance in personal accomplishment, while low levels of occupational stress because of job demands, a weak sense of coherence, and approach coping strategies predicted 24% of the variance in engagement. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

During the Second World War, more than 22,000 Japanese Canadians were interned to various locations throughout Canada. While more than 60 years have passed since these events, there remains limited research on the impact that this event had on this group of people. Using McCubbin and Patterson’s (1983) Double ABCX model of family stress and adaptation as a framework, this study used historical narratives of 69 Japanese Canadians to gain insight into a) how Japanese Canadians coped with the challenges associated with their internment, and b) what resources they used during this same time period. The analysis of the coping strategies was done using a modified version of existing measures of coping strategies (Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986; Suedfeld, Krell, Wiebe, & Steel, 1997), and the analysis of resources was done using an adjusted version of Rettig’s (1995) and Tucker and Rice’s (1985) resource classification list. There were no statistically significant differences between Japanese Canadian men and women in their coping strategy use, but that there were differences between the Issei (first generation) and Nisei (second generation). The Issei used Self Control, Positive Reappraisal, and Denail more than the Nisei, while the Nisei used Seeking Social Support more than the Issei. A strong relationship between coping and resources was found; a relationship that has often been assumed, but never tested. The findings from this study also provided additional support for the usefulness of using both narratives and the Double ABCX model in research.

This study investigates the impact of crowding on frontline service employees. In particular, this study examines how customer crowding affects frontline service employees’ stress, emotions, job performance, and displayed emotions. This study pioneers a new avenue by investigating employee (as opposed to consumer) reactions to customer crowding and addressing the gap in the literature on employees’ interaction with the physical environment. The underlying theoretical framework of the study is rooted in Lazarus’s (1966; 1991) model that links appraisal, emotional response, and coping in a sequential process. Applying theory to the context issue of customer crowding, the major constructs for this study are determined as: 1)the stressor (customer crowding), (2)appraisal,(3) emotions, (4)coping, and (5)service quality outcomes. The four major areas investigated in this study are: (1)stress levels of FSE due to customer crowding, (2)their emotions in the crowded service environment, (3)coping strategies they use under these circumstances, and(4)effects of such coping strategies on job performance and displayed emotions. A laboratory experiment is conducted with 200 frontline service employees where human density (a precursor to crowding)is manipulated via scenarios and videos. Analyzing the data via ANOVA, simple regression, and multiple regression, the results showed: (1)a positive relationship between crowding and stress, (2)an inverse relationship between positive emotions and stress, (3)a positive relationship between stress and negative emotions, (4) a negative impact of escape and confrontive coping strategies on service quality outcomes, and (5) a positive impact of distancing and social support on service quality outcomes. The contributions of the study are that: (1)it pioneers a new research avenue which opens avenues for future research, (2)it goes beyond the traditional Stimulus-Organism-Response approach to person-environment interaction and expands the domain of inquiry by incorporating the Lazarus transactional theory in the study of person-environment interaction, and (3)it provides a number of managerial implications regarding design of servicescapes to reduce the experience of crowding and training of frontline service employees on successful coping strategies.

A significant body of research documents the experiences of war correspondents and the impact covering conflict has on them. Far fewer studies focus on the impact that covering everyday trauma has on journalists. This Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) explores, at an idiographic level, the life worlds of six journalists from sub-Saharan Africa, and how each of them makes sense of the everyday trauma they experience in their work. The findings show that in each journalist's case, witnessing others' pain and trauma had a life changing impact; that empathy helped them cope with what they saw and experienced; and that they shared a tolerance for risk-taking. Journalists are the eyes and ears of the public. The study suggests that if journalists have the necessary emotional tools to cope with the stress they encounter in their work, everyone benefits: the journalists, their media organizations, the people whose stories they tell, and society. It is therefore important to take journalists' emotional coping strategies into account, so as not to cement the notion that feeling numb in the face of emotional trauma is simply business as usual.