Community reparation for young offenders was introduced under section 67 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 and it involves the completion of unpaid work, such as painting and decorating, litter picking and graffiti removal. The Youth Justice Board (YJB) places significant emphasis on community reparation as a successful sanction, but concern has been raised about the poor quality of workplace provision and the deteriorating performance of the disposal. Crucially however, there has been no research explicitly focusing on youth justice community reparation within England and Wales. This study, therefore, reviews and integrates the research and evaluation evidence base for both adult community service and youth justice community reparation and as a result, establishes the most comprehensive model for the effective delivery of unpaid work, including the acquisition of employability skills. It then examines community reparation in practice within a single Youth Offending Team (YOT), utilising a combined methods approach and drawing upon the experiences of young offenders and their supervisors. This research shows that community reparation in practice does not match the available evidence base of what is thought to be effective. In particular, the YOT studied has adopted a formulaic approach to workplace allocation, with an over-reliance on low cost menial tasks. As a result, offenders and their supervisors are frustrated that such placements do not provide employability skills, a key factor associated with reductions in reoffending. This study concludes that youth justice community reparation has the potential to be a highly successful re-integrative intervention for young people, but it argues that more attention needs to be paid to the rehabilitative potential of the disposal. The study also suggests there is a need to disseminate an ‘evidenced-based best practice model’ for the successful delivery of community reparation to all YOTs, sentencers and relevant Inspectorate staff. This will contribute to increasing staff awareness and commitment to the disposal, making a valuable potential contribution to reductions in the use of imprisonment and its associated costs.

Community Safety Partnerships were introduced through the Crime & Disorder Act 1998 by the New Labour Government as a vehicle to address local crime and disorder issues. They have a statutory footing and the responsible authorities that make up their membership include the Police, Police Authority, Local Authority, Fire & Rescue Authority, Probation Trust and the Health Sector. Through identifying levels of crime and disorder Community Safety Partnerships are required to devise strategies to address these issues along with a range of interventions. Since their inception there have been many changes to these partnerships facilitated largely by the Home Office. Research has been conducted on Community Safety Partnerships however there is an absence in the literature and research on their impact within the community. Along with this gap in knowledge has been a changing political and economic environment. This presents an opportunity to review how community safety can be delivered now and in the future. The purpose of the research was to examine the impact of two Community Safety Partnerships in London and to also identify areas for improvement. The aims of the research were to determine practitioners’ views of the impact of these partnerships in dealing with crime and disorder at the local level and to examine practitioners’ wider perspectives on the utility of these partnerships now and the future. Finally, on the basis of the evidence generated by the research it makes recommendations for improvements in the work of Community Safety Partnerships. The research involved 18 semi-structured interviews with community safety practitioners across the two sites along with this a review of key documents, recorded crime figures and partnership records was undertaken. This then became the basis for identifying areas for improvement. The research established that both partnerships had no common agreement as to how to measure ‘effectiveness’. There was moreover an overreliance on using recorded crime data as the sole measure of partnership effectiveness. This appeared to be heavily influenced by central government and their comprehensive performance management regime. If effectiveness was to be measured solely on crime rates it was evident that both partnerships had some impact. The research also demonstrated that community safety partnerships were engaged with heavy workloads however a large proportion of work undertaken by Community Safety Partnerships was not evaluated. Evaluation was indeed minimal. This was an acknowledged weakness identified amongst most practitioners interviewed. The local authority played a crucial role in partnership business undertaking a disproportionate amount of work compared to the police and other responsible authorities. There was an overreliance on perceived benefits of partnership working by practitioners. Also potential benefits were to be highlighted rather than actually being achieved. Cost effectiveness and achieving value for money was also an area which both partnerships failed to progress. This was clear when reviewing governance structures, meetings, reports produced and time spent on these activities. All of these could have been streamlined and made more effective. Finally, it was evident that personalities played a key role in community safety partnerships. They could significantly influence the work Community Safety Partnerships undertook including their overall effectiveness. The disadvantage of this however was that good relationships amongst responsible authorities led to a lack of challenge in partnership business. Finally, in terms of continued government support, the future of these statutory partnerships is far from clear. Significant cuts in grant along with the introduction of Police & Crime Commissioners raises questions about the future of Community Safety Partnerships. An important consideration will be a future focus on improvement and demonstrating value for money. In light of this, and in light of the research findings a number of recommendations are made. These include a view that a strong evaluation ethos is introduced to Community Safety Partnership work and also adopting a performance management framework which can be used to measure these partnerships more robustly. It recommended that the role played by the local authority requires to be rebalanced along with improving and enhancing community engagement. Lastly, the key areas identified by the research echo the findings of earlier work undertaken thus questions the degree of progress made by these partnerships, not necessarily due to factors within their control.

There has been limited academic interest on accurate fraud measurement, and no identifiable published research on practitioner and academic opinion on measurement methods and how the process might be improved to generate a more realistic loss figure. This thesis presents the findings of research conducted as part of a Professional Doctorate in Criminal Justice studies. The project has gathered views from fraud professionals and academics, drawing upon 12 structured qualitative interviews. The opinion of fraud professionals from the public, private and voluntary/charitable sectors has been gathered through the issue of a quantitative web based questionnaire informed by the responses obtained from the qualitative strand. The thesis presents collective opinion on the creation of a standard definition of fraud for measurement purposes, mandating measurement through the creation of a statute based upon empirical evidence provided by the United States (US) Improper Payments Information Act 2002, the implementation of a consistent standard of measurement, and the development of best practice. The research findings have identified a complacent attitude towards fraud and associated business risks, defined as immoral phlegmatism. Accordingly, solutions are offered to address this phenomenon within all three sectors. Recommendations are then proffered on how to improve the accuracy of loss figures through the creation of legislation mandating fraud measurement in the public and private sectors, the introduction of a British Standard of measurement, the development of a knowledge exchange infrastructure, and a marketing campaign to increase fraud awareness and associated business risks.

This thesis examines how relationships that promote behavioural change are conceptualised and de-constructed within Probation practice in England and Wales, investigating the relational narrative and temporary tears in the relationship (ruptures). The project embraces a participatory approach, involving probationers1 and practitioners within the design, implementation and analysis of the research to acknowledge the benefits of listening to the “offender voice” within relational research. Seventeen Probation practitioners participated in focus groups and eighteen probationer interviews were undertaken, with the use of visual aids to enhance engagement. In light of the findings, the Dynamic Model of Therapeutic Correctional Relationships (TCRs) is presented to conceptualise TCRs, through an examination of its mechanisms. The relational narrative is de-constructed and five stages emerged from the data, these being; relational pre-conceptions, activating the TCR, developing the TCR, sustaining/maintaining the TCR and preparing to end the TCR. During each stage, it was found that certain aspects of practice could promote the development of TCRs over time. Finally, the findings suggest that relational ruptures exist within Probation practice and the management of ruptures are addressed through a set of principles. These principles promote the reparation of ruptures through acknowledgement, action, reflection and review. This thesis concludes with the proposal that practitioners need to “play‖ a new relational ―game” within Probation practice, to encourage the development of TCRs and support the processes of change.

This thesis explores probation practitioners’ views regarding changes to practice in light of the implementation of a new model of practice, namely the SEEDS (Skills for Effective Engagement, Development and Supervision) model. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with 15 female and 5 male practitioners from one Probation Trust in the south east of the UK. The sample was made up of probation service officers, probation officers and one senior probation officer. The research focused on practitioners’ experiences and views regarding the implementation of SEEDS and the impact this has had on their day to day practice. It also looked at the process of organisational change more widely. The results suggest that the introduction of SEEDS has not thus far resulted in its stated aim of achieving a stock change in probation culture. In order to explain why that is, the three themes of ‘Identity’, ‘Autonomy’ and ‘Accountability’ were explored. In addition, a divide was apparent in the views of respondents and this could be understood in terms of experienced versus less experienced respondents. Whilst the less experienced respondents were welcoming of SEEDS as a resource that offers guidance and reassurance about practice, the more experienced respondents were less embracing. They viewed SEEDS as essentially repackaging the skills they already have in one to one work with offenders. Understanding how changes are received at the coalface has important implications for managers and policymakers when trying to affect significant change in the culture of an organisation. The conclusion that the workforce is divided based on practitioners years’ of experience suggests that different strategies need to be adopted for both groups when trying to implement new models of practice.

The aim of this research study was to build upon the continuing interest around the applicability of situational crime prevention to tackle many forms of crime, including organised crimes. Using money laundering as the specific crime type, this study focused on two specific methods, namely cash intensive businesses and the purchasing of high value portable commodities to determine whether situational crime prevention could improve or enhance current preventative measures within the United Kingdom.

This doctoral thesis examined the paradoxically difficult integration of Social Network Analysis (SNA), as a principal analytical approach, in the supranational intelligence and law enforcement environment of Europol. This real-world problem was systematically investigated with the use of an exploratory mixed methods design. Initially, a questionnaire survey, focussing on the perceptions of the whole population of Europol’s operational analysts (N=77) and achieving a high response rate of 75% (n=58), helped identify key barriers to SNA integration. Thereafter, in-depth thematic analysis of five semi-structured interviews contributed to better understanding of the identified barriers. Lastly, a topical literature review facilitated the theoretical application of empirical results. In this way, the study traced the possible causes of the research problem and shed light into the highly constrained operational role of Europol making two important theoretical contributions: the “basic work phenomenon” and the “input (procedural) legitimacy-innovation” hypothesis. Specifically, it was found that Europol’s transformation into an EU Agency in 2010 – with a “light” criminal information role and a preoccupation with elementary intelligence production and input (procedural) legitimacy gains – actually weakened its epistemic authority and output legitimacy, impeding the integration of the innovative network paradigm. Alternative explanations, such as Europol analysts’ anti-epistemic inclinations and resistance to change, did not account for the magnitude of the observed phenomenon. The thesis fills an empirical and theoretical gap in extant literature on EU Agency governance and furthers understanding of the inner workings of Europol. Based on novel and quite informative evidence, the study argues that the dominance of Eurosceptic views and national sovereignty concerns has raised high political and bureau-political barriers sidelining Europhile orientations in the sensitive area of EU law enforcement cooperation. The findings suggest that the main policy challenge for this EU Agency is to find a better balance between its political and epistemic authority and input (procedural) and output legitimacy.

The benefits of international cooperation in security are well understood. However, they have proven difficult to achieve as has any unanimously agreed standard or protocol. The purpose of this research is to establish how standardisation in security could be implemented internationally. Special attention has been paid to the operational level of the security apparatus and staff to conceptualise the challenges of implementation in multi-disciplined policing and security. This thesis also takes a wide-ranging view of the social interaction and interrelationship between the security apparatus and society; how the changes in the security environment have focused attention on the need for international standardisation and the challenges which led to the establishment of some international cooperation and systems, none of which has received universal acceptance. The important contribution of this research is in identifying and explaining the challenges involved in the establishment of an international security standard, and in providing some solutions and insights based upon the objective experiential reflection of people and organisations facing the challenges posed by a variety of security risks. The aim of this work is achieved by addressing two overarching concepts; the first of which addresses the difficulties involved in establishing an international standard for security acceptable to the international community such that they would cooperate given their many sovereign interests. The second of which defines the possibility of such a proposition involving the practicalities of implementing such a system at an operational level given the inevitable differences between countries. This study is based upon a complex body of data and information the gathering of which has been complicated by the inherent confidentiality in the sector. Infrastructural Information gathered by desk research and a wide literature review have been enriched by Operational Information from which three key hypotheses going to the root of the problem statement have been developed. 30 key issues/areas of focus were derived from these hypotheses and expanded into a questionnaire of 49 questions. The questionnaire targets objective information by the reflection of the participants on a wide range of issues, which also provides the basis of the interview regime. The data and information are analysed within a by-question discussion protocol and used to test the three key hypotheses from which conclusions are defined and recommendations identified. It was found that limited access to information within the culture of secrecy in the security sector hinders progress towards standardisation. Whilst there was a low level of resistance from the police and the security establishment to cooperation, many countries would need legislation to enable participation, which many would be provisionally willing to enact to enable cooperation. This in turn would require the sharing and exchange of information which would be a benefit of coordination and cooperation. The majority of countries would support working to a standard and would value cooperation. A need for support is indicated in the areas of management, benchmarking, commonality and improvement of processes. This is because few countries manage their security to a standard; and the majority want improvements and common standards to work to. It is clear that success depends upon commonality and coordination and there is a willingness to coordinate and cooperate by the majority of countries. It is recommended that standardisation come under the auspices of a supranational body like the United Nations because of the development work required in bringing countries together. A coordinated cooperation within a structured standardised organisation sensitive to various country needs would appeal to the majority and would most likely succeed.

Justice campaigns and pressure groups against miscarriages of justice represent an important counter discourse against justice in error and can further support reform to the criminal justice system. Some campaigns have succeeded in contributing to change in criminal justice legislation and in raising public awareness of miscarriage of justice in England and Wales. As a response to wrongful conviction a frequent decision taken by appellants and their families is to set up a campaign against miscarriage of justice in order to engage in extra-judicial activities that dispute the conviction and sentence. The core aim of this study is to examine the personal, interpersonal, social and organisational dynamics of participants campaigning against miscarriage of justice. The issues covered include the early experiences of campaigners and the strategies and tactics of resistance used during campaigns. The study will further examine pressure group politics and examine political dimensions including issues of democracy and decision-making within groups. The study draws on miscarriage of justice, victimology, pressure group and media discourses and has employed a multi-method approach to data collection including participant observation, semi-structured interviews and the analysis of documentary evidence. The study identifies a complex interplay of factors contributing to campaigns against miscarriage of justice. Campaigns provide primary and secondary victims of miscarriage of justice with the support to sustain the appellant’s fight against wrongful conviction. Additionally, campaigns can stimulate the activism of campaigners and contribute to extending their protest against other areas of perceived injustice. In short this study examines the intimate relationship between victimisation and mobilisation.

In October 2008, Mr Justice Morris published the final of his eight reports concerned with police corruption in An Garda Síochána, the national police service of the Republic of Ireland. This thesis draws upon research conducted with Irish police officers to offer an operational-level cultural analysis of their perceptions of the post-scandal reform agendas introduced. It begins with an overview of the misconduct that happened in one Irish policing division and its related wider application. The focus then turns to the nature and detail of the reforms initiated to bring about change. It proposes a theoretical framework adapted from Lonergan’s (1972) cognitional process and a Kohlbergian (1978) model of moral reasoning to gauge individual officer integrity. Then, a critical evaluation of the literature concerning the resistance ‘conventional’ police cultures may present, is discussed. Next, the narrative vignettes of our research participants, which were obtained from the thirty-eight interviews conducted are exhibited. The findings and analysis of this research confirm that the necessity for the Morris Tribunal has been broadly accepted by interviewees. Further, it delivers a review of those reforms that have had the greatest impact on the perceptions of operational police officers and those that may have made less of an impression. It conveys an interpretive appraisal of the key features of An Garda Síochána’s ‘new’ operational-level organisational culture, as they may be, which conveys a shared outlook that views formal rules as self-serving legitimate normative orders designed to guide professional conduct. Garda culture may be currently demarcated by its appreciation of the need for, deliberative trust based initiatives primarily focused on peace keeping and crime prevention goals. There may also be cultural acceptance of pluralistic relations which seek to progressively develop mutual respect between parties and develop partnership. Irish police officers appear to understand the importance of social justice through inclusion and the need to protect against human rights violations. Conventional police solidarity has perhaps been affected by external oversight mechanisms. Finally, an assessment of what may have worked best to achieve this change is presented.