<p> The goal of this quantitative non-experimental, correlational research study was to examine what individual characteristics correlated with the decision-making processes of students pursuing an undergraduate degree in criminal justice. The sample was drawn from students at several traditional (brick and mortar) degree programs, and once institutional review boards approval were gained, data collection commenced. The Congruent and Incongruent Moral Dilemma&rsquo;s test of dual-process, developed by Conway and Gawronski (2013), was used to collect data concerning ethical decision-making. The survey was collected through Survey Monkey and the data were analyzed using IBM SPSS 24 software. Of the 313 responses collected, 138 were usable. The participants were asked to choose between what was an acceptable (congruent dilemmas showing utilitarianism) or unacceptable harm (incongruent dilemmas showing deontology) in a series of ethical decision-making scenarios. The differences between the two dilemmas were found to have significance. The results indicated that age and education (criminal justice versus other majors) were significant, but not as predictors of ethical decision-making; with criminal justice majors having a higher selection of deontology than non-majors. Gender was the significant predictor of ethical decision-making. Women, having higher levels of deontology than men. Results found that with increased religious attendance, and those without military experience had higher levels of deontology but were not significant predictors of ethical decision-making. Furthermore, as individuals increased their socio-economic status there was a decrease in deontological inclinations. Finally, the results of traditional on-campus program and non-traditional program students was not a significant predictor of ethical decision-making. These findings are evidence that individual characteristics influence deontological and utilitarian inclinations and help resolve some of the theoretical ambiguities in prior research. This research can help inform academic institutions, criminal justice organizations, and students preparing for a career in public safety to be better prepared to make quick and ethical decisions in the field and help focus training and educational programs to assist with this process.</p><p>

<p> <i><b>Objective:</b></i> The objective of this dissertation is twofold. The first objective is to summarize the literature on poly-victimization (PV) with a focus on what relationships have been tested and how poly-victimization has been operationalized in the field. The second objective is to replicate and expand the literature by empirically testing the effect of poly-victimization on delinquency.</p><p> <i><b>Design, Data, and Participants.</b></i> This dissertation employs a mixed method approach made up of a systematic literature review and secondary data analysis. The systematic literature review summarizes 59 poly-victimization articles published between 2007 and 2017 that contain the terms &ldquo;poly-victim&rdquo; or &ldquo;poly-victimization&rdquo; in its title and/or abstract. The secondary data analysis is based on a nationally representative sample of 6,364 10 to 17-year-olds who self-reported their lifetime victimization experiences and their past-year delinquency involvement. The pooled dataset used in this dissertation is based on the aggregation of three repeated assessments collected in 3-year intervals between 2008 and 2014, the National Survey of Children&rsquo;s Exposure to Violence (NatSCEV). NatSCEV is a cross-sectional, U.S. based, national telephone survey conducted in English and Spanish.</p><p> <i><b>Broader Impacts.</b></i> This dissertation seeks to provide evidence-based knowledge that will inform both the imminent research agenda and the practical and clinical strategies designed to respond to poly-victimization. The systematic review will contribute to these objectives by identifying the gaps that exist in the poly-victimization literature and by summarizing the measurement issues surrounding its operationalization. The secondary data analysis will contribute to this by providing practitioners and clinicians the evidence needed to develop and implement the policies, practices, and strategies that can positively affect the dynamic relationship that exists between violence exposure and violence perpetration.</p><p> <i><b>Results and Conclusion-Literature Review.</b></i> Although much of the work has focused on evaluating the effect of PV on a host of adverse mental health outcomes, some work has been done to advance our understanding of adverse behavioral and social outcomes. The systematic literature review shows that most studies have focused on quantitatively evaluating the direct effects of PV using cross-sectional designs, adolescent respondents, and non-probability samples. The field can benefit from designing qualitative and/or mixed method studies that can complement each other and supplement what we already know about PV. Efforts should also be made to incorporate mediating and moderating factors into our research, thereby starting to explore more complex relationships. When quantitative efforts are pursued, focusing on obtaining probability samples and incorporating longitudinal designs will be most helpful given the current state of knowledge. Lastly, having multiple respondents can help triangulate information and address the ongoing debate on proxy interviews.</p><p> <i><b>Results and Conclusion-Secondary Data Analysis.</b></i> Ample evidence was found to conclude that poly-victimization predicts a variety of deviant, delinquent, and rule breaking behaviors. PV&rsquo;s predicted 13 different types of delinquent behaviors. It was also found to be a stronger predictor of any delinquency, as compared to 10 other categories of victimization, namely property crime, physical assault, child maltreatment, sexual victimization, kidnapping, bullying victimization, online victimization and exposure to family, school, and community violence. The policy and practice implications of these findings are extensively discussed.</p><p>

The purpose of this work is to examine the concept or notion of policing by consent and it is important to note, at the outset, that the vast majority of the literature produced on the subject, both current and past, has concentrated on policing by consent from many different viewpoints with one quite startling omission. There does not appear to be any academic study based on the views and perceptions of it [consent] that the practitioners, the police themselves, have. In order to correct this imbalance the study therefore set out, by means of a series of semi-structured interviews, to obtain the views and perceptions of both serving and retired officers of a principle, certainly of policing in England and Wales, which is at the very core of their professional lives. Prior to the interviews, which took place between November 2007 and December 2008, the officers were arranged into four cohorts, each cohort consisting of ten officers, and within each cohort, the officers range across the continuum of rank, ethnicity, gender and length of service. This provided a series of wide ranging views, but with some important common themes, across the continuum of policing. It is important to note however, that in a study as limited as this, it could never be said that the views expressed represent those of the police service in general, nevertheless, the study does represent the views of a number of officers, and, more importantly adds to the body of knowledge on the subject. Following the interviews, which were digitally recorded and later transcribed, analysis, which was based on an amalgam of analytical methods, took place. The psychological aspects were dealt with by reference to both axiomatic knowledge and the actions and motives of subjects who are placed in an interview situation The findings, which have been arranged into a series of themes based upon various models of what has been termed the ‘unofficial’ culture of the police which often appears to be at variance with the accepted norms and values of policing. These ‘official’ values are driven by legislation, a series of national policies and national policing initiatives, all of which, in turn, are bound by the financial constraints of a fixed annual budget composed in part of a local policing precept set by the police and crime commissioners in consultation with Chief Officers. The remainder of the budget is funded by central government following the annual inspection of forces by Her Majesties Inspectorate of Constabulary (HMIC). The findings also reveal the emergence of a strong sense of duty which, in turn, indicates, that as professional police officers, they do indeed both recognise and endeavour to practice policing with that most important element of consent. To their credit they have also acknowledged the occasions when through either their own actions or because of the constraints placed upon them by the legislation they have lost that vital element of consent and have reflected upon it and the impact that it has had upon their future practices. The work, in its entirety, provides a valuable insight into the views of both serving and retired officers, particularly with regards to the effects that police culture have had, either knowingly, unknowingly or unwittingly upon their actions. It has also provided a valuable contribution to the extensive body of literature on policing in England and Wales.

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has successfully established itself as one of the most economically advanced countries in the world; among the various cities of the UAE, Dubai stands out as an economical and business hub for the whole world. Dubai has established itself as one of the fastest growing states, as a preferred economic city for global trade, commercial transaction and a tourist hot spot for the whole world. Such key factors have proved the main impetus to the Dubai construction industry, which in turn has attracted workers from many countries. However, these workers, though contributing heavily to Dubai’s growing need to develop physical infrastructure, are mostly less educated, unskilled and mainly come from the sub-continents such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. This group of workers now dominate, outnumbering other foreign communities and even the local nationals of Dubai. Such workers are also considered, by the local citizens, to have created many social problems, including involvement in serious crimes. Therefore there is a need to investigate and explore the issues associated with the immigration of workers. This study has focussed on the activities of these migrant workers and their involvement in various crimes in Dubai. The study also investigates the main causes of social problems, and concludes that there is a lack of appropriate socio-economic conditions for the migrant workers. The study further explores the needs for effective and meaningful integration of migrant workers as well as considering relevant legal systems in Dubai in order to suggest changes which may help to reduce the crimes committed by this demographic in Dubai. These issues are supported by a critical analysis of the main theoretical framework and existing literature. The study also brings together three new data sources for the first time: semi-structured interviews with Police Officers; an analysis of criminal cases involving migrant workers from the Naiff Police Station; and data from the Dubai Ministry of Interior Statistics. All these sources support the thesis that there is link between crime and the socioeconomic conditions of migrant workers in Dubai. The study also concludes that there is need to implement more meaningful and effective ways of implementing legal systems in Dubai. In particular, the study suggests that there is a need to improve the effective and meaningful implementation of the immigration system in Dubai, focusing on modernisation and regular updating of immigration data. This may help in improve the socio-economic conditions of migrant workers in Dubai as well as reducing crimes committed by such workers.

This thesis examines the cultural dynamics within a specialist policing department with a particular focus on the issue of gender. It explores the experiences of a sample group of police officers working within the firearms unit of one metropolitan police force. Culture, the history of policing, specialist departments and the introduction of women are considered in order to gain an in depth understanding of the organisation. Previous research into police culture suggests masculine values remain intensely dominant, particularly within the firearms arena, ultimately creating an environment, which outwardly appears unattractive to women. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with twenty-one police officers including eleven male and ten female officers from Constable to Inspector rank. The research focused on the pre-joining experiences of the officers involved and also their personal experiences of life on the firearms unit. The study identified that the issues within the firearms unit appear not to be about gender: there was little evidence to suggest that officers within the firearms unit were treated differently or unfairly due to their gender. What was apparent was the presence of in-group/out-group distinctions, with an overwhelming desire from both genders to be accepted and to "fit-in". This has implications with regards to the research concerning occupational cultures, including police culture in particular.

This study seeks to explore some of the main problems contemporary British Muslims encounter from the perspective of Islamic jurisprudence. In so doing, it mainly aims to shed light on the extent Muslims in Britain face problems and what impact they might have on their religious identity as well as relationship, belonging, and contribution to the wider society. In so doing, the study will strive to examine whether existing fiqh (Isalmic jurisprudence) literature is adequate to guide contemporary fiqh scholars to deal with such issues effectively and how some contemporary answers to such issues are inappropriate. If that is the case, what would be the way forward jurists should take to find appropriate solutions? Hence, this study will use qualitative methodology to investigate such issues and questions and it will lead the study to emphasise the necessity to find answers to such problems and a mechanism to handle them, which this study would seek to suggest as a jurisprudential approach called fiqh al-aqalliyyāt al-Muslimah (Islamic Jurisprudence for Muslim Minorities) based on values, principles, universalities, and higher objectives of Islamic law: maqāsid al-Sharī‘ah (Purposes of Islamic Sharī‘ah) presented by revisiting textual sources of Islamic law as well as lived examples of early generations of Islam. It will also make some suggestions about further studies needed as regards to fiqh for Muslim minorities.

It is claimed that the National Intelligence Model (NIM) consolidated intelligence-led policing principles in investigative practice and decision making in British policing. Subsequently, encouraged by the Home Office, the NIM was adopted by a number of other public services with an investigative capability. However, that transfer took place without a sufficiently rigorous evaluation of the model’s value to the police service and without any meaningful analysis of its relevance to the investigative functions of other public sector agencies. This research examined the adoption of the NIM by three public sector bodies: The Department for Work and Pensions (DWP), The Identity and Passport Service (IPS) and the Driving Standards Agency (DSA). It drew on archival materials, associated literature and the analysis of semi-structured interviews with the personnel of these and associated agencies. Research respondents also assessed a simplified version of the NIM that was designed to remove many of the original model’s inconsistencies and ambiguities. The research identified that the reviewed public services are not compliant with the NIM minimum standards and that the model has not delivered any meaningful improvement in the consistency of process, investigative efficiency, improved partnership working, or in fraud reduction in those agencies. The NIM failed because of perceived complexity, the language of the model and supplementary guidance; its exclusive ‘fit’ with the police; and a suspicion by the agencies’ personnel that its adoption was intended as a performance management and governance tool. Moreover, the revised version of the NIM’s minimum standards did not improve comprehension or conformity, or resolve the model’s perceived police bias. It was concluded that the model is not fit for purpose for the agencies studied and that an alternative model that is more finely tuned to the needs of those agencies is required.

This exploratory study sought to understand the role of volume crime investigators in the modern era. It attempted to gain officers` perceptions on the attributes required to be a successful at the role. In addition, the research sought to understand how modern investigators thought success should be defined and measured in relation to individual investigator performance. Chapter One explored previous research relating to police investigators and success, and identified the main research questions that define the programme of research. Key considerations were whether success could be identified, how it could be measured and whether high performers could be distinguished from their peers.Thirty attributes were identified from previous research to form part of Studies One and Two. Study One examined volume crime investigators` perceptions of their role, success and the skills and abilities required to be successful were identified using a questionnaire. Findings were consistent with previous research, as respondents ranked areas such as communication skills, commitment, dedication, decision-making and motivation highly. Surprisingly, areas such as education, stability, empathy, training and intelligence ranked lower than expected. Respondents appeared consistent in suggesting detections as a measure of success but with a caveat that it was not utilised as the sole measurement of success. Study Two asked investigators to identify successful investigators from amongst their peers. Respondents appeared to choose peers who were older, more experienced and trained in investigation and various themes were explored as to why this may have been the case. Respondents also ranked the thirty attributes on the basis of how prevalent they were in successful peers. These rankings were not entirely consistent with Study One rankings. Areas such as experience and persistence ranked higher, although stability, education, training, empathy and intelligence still ranked low.In Study Three high and low performers were identified by objective means. Several obstacles were encountered in trying to obtain relevant data from the participating forces. The range of data available was surprisingly low in the modern era. High and low detection sets were compared to each other, as well as to the high and low choice sets identified from Study Two. Age and length of service reduced, and the high detection set contained only a third of the high choice set, suggesting that respondents ability to distinguish high performers was far from foolproof, and may have been rooted in cultural beliefs about effectiveness. High and low performing groups were identified and compared. In Study Four, high and low performers were compared in relation to mean scores achieved on the NEO personality inventory. This measured respondents in five personality domains and thirty individual facets. There were no significant differences between the groups in relation to the domains, and there was only one significant difference in relation to the facet of gregariousness. This relates to a persons sociability and is part of the domain of Extraversion. No correlations were found between scores achieved and objective and subjective measures of success. Training stood out as a significant difference between the groups, with almost all those in the high performing group being trained in the national investigator programme as opposed to fewer trained in the low performing group. Various reasons were posited for this difference, but it is possible that this result demonstrates the effectiveness of investigator training. Study Five compared each group in relation to critical thinking skills, as respondents in previous studies had ranked reasoning, judgment and decision-making as important to success. There were no significant differences in relation to overall scores or individual subset scores. Correlations were found between overall test scores, individual subset scores and manager performance ratings, suggesting that a relationship exists. Various reasons were explored for the lack of difference between the groups, and it was posited that dispositional factors might make a difference as to whether an investigator used their innate skills. Study Six compared each group in relation to scores achieved on Ravens Standard Progressive Matrices (a test designed to measure intellectual capacity), as well as the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (designed to measure multiple dimensions of empathy). Both of these areas ranked low in respondents rankings in previous studies. No significant differences were discovered in relation to either intelligence or empathy, nor were any correlations found with objective or subjective measures of success. The SPM measures fluid intelligence. It does not measure crystallised intelligence or indeed other forms of intelligence. Whilst it might be tempting to suggest that intelligence plays no part in the success or otherwise of investigations because of the negative finding here, caution is needed. This study does not explore other forms of intelligence, nor does it explore dispositional factors that might make a difference as to whether an individual uses their abilities. Chapter Eight discusses the programme of research, considers methodological issues, and makes suggestions for further research.

Reflection and reflective learning has been established as an effective approach to improving the standards of professional knowledge and professional practice of employees whose work involves a high degree of social interaction; particularly during the training phase of their careers. Published research on reflective learning within health care and education agencies is prevalent, but there is a noticeable absence of literature examining reflection and reflective learning within policing. This research project fills a gap in that knowledge by answering the questions how do student constables training with the Metropolitan Police conceptualise reflection and what motivates those student constables to reflect? A qualitative phenomenographical approach has been taken to conduct and analyse semi-structured interviews with a representative sample of 24 student constables training in North, Central and South London. Extracts from the interviews have been presented as vignettes to illuminate how students conceptualise reflection including examples of personal experiences from the training environment and real world. Those conceptions range from a superficial awareness of physical surroundings to a profound appreciation of how individual behaviour impacts on public confidence in the police. The research discovered that the students conceptualise reflection in seven qualitatively different ways; distilled from a wide range of contributions made during the interviews. This research has established that despite inconsistencies with the quality of instruction given to reflective learning during foundation training, reflection is an essential process by which students develop policing skills. Reflection was also identified as an effective means by which training interventions could be invoked; addressing behavioural issues such as inappropriate use of force and how unnecessarily confrontational attitudes can provoke aggression from members of the public. A hierarchical model has been developed illustrating the depths to which reflection is conceived with propositions made as to how potential limitations of reflection can be mitigated and what opportunities there are for further research.

Education, training and employment (ETE) are considered of great importance to desistance from crime and the rehabilitation of the offender (Clarke, 2010; Farrall, 2002; SEU: 2002). This study sets out to investigate the use and success of such an intervention in a local Probation Trust area, with a convenience sample drawn from a population of adult offenders (aged 18 years+). It makes use of a triangulation (mixed) methodology conducted through a series of assisted questionnaires undertaken with offenders and semi-structured interviews, with both offenders and staff members, to better evaluate the success of such a programme, as well as assessing the experience and understanding of the individual participants. Data collected during the assisted questionnaire – both in specific answers and open conversation – and in the follow-up interviews suggest a positive experience for the individual. Furthermore, the findings suggest that the provision of ETE provides for a clear and supportive service, which helps the individual to move away from crime in an informed and positive manner. This is a finding supportive of earlier work completed in the field suggesting that desistance is a process of moving away from crime and not the end result (Laub and Sampson 2001). Much of the evidence points towards a greater concentration upon those outcomes which are not always seen as being target led or funding-related, which have often been termed as soft skills and soft-outcomes. Indeed, a number of the findings of this study are reflective of those reported by McNeill and Weaver (2010: 6), providing for honesty and clarity; informal and respectful relationships; recognising the importance of the social for the individual. It is believed that these similarities only strengthen the conclusions drawn within the thesis. Consequently, the thesis observes ETE as a service which supports desistance through one-to-one engagement, treating the offender as an individual in need of assistance and guidance which focuses on the future rather than the past, and identifies the need to replace a focus upon risk with a one-to-one desistance focused management as the way forward for the probation service.