This study’s purpose was to glean a comprehensive list of the leadership challenges faced and strategies utilized during campus crisis and tragedy. It also sought to examine the goals of leadership at different phases of a crisis, aspects of leadership focused on, and recommended leadership practices to follow. A typology was created to identify appropriate crises. The typology classified crises as (a) institution as victim, (b) natural disaster, or (c) institution having legal liability. Fourteen interviews were conducted at eight schools. Interview transcripts were segmented into units for analysis. These data units were coded, grouped into categories, and named as themes. Once all themes were identified, overarching themes established the findings. Eight major challenges were identified for campus leaders during crisis: (a) leading in spite of a loss of control, (b) coping with deficient, inadequate, or non-existent technical and human crisis response measures or systems, (c) evaluation of leadership decisions occurring almost simultaneously to leadership actions, (d) altering operations and relationships, (e) managing transitions within the life of the crisis, (f) communicating about the crisis, (g) dealing with multiple constituency groups, and (h) dealing with longterm effects. Ten categories of strategies were identified: (a) making safety the priority, (b) leading planning and policy development, (c) garnering resources, (d) leading intentional communications efforts, (e) clarifying the leadership infrastructure, (f) accepting responsibility for crisis leadership, (g) modifying the leadership approach, (h) framing the crisis for others, (i) leading the healing process, and (j) leading efforts to learn from the crisis. Study findings suggested that it is not the type of crisis but the amount of devastation that determines leadership challenges and approaches. Leadership challenges evolve through predictable stages, invoking a broad range of leadership skills and concepts. During crisis, campus leaders focus on collaborative, symbolic, and logistical leadership. Sharing a common orientation during crisis is facilitative in the decision-making process. Policy development is a powerful means of bringing structure to a chaotic situation and of demonstrating an ethic of care. Findings from this study provided not only an overview of leadership challenges and strategies during campus crisis, but insight into a variety of crisis types, and practical application strategies for university administrators.

Det är inte längre en fråga om huruvida en organisation kommer att drabbas av en kris, utan det är snarare frågan om när. Det har skett en utveckling inom diskursen för kriskommunikation. Fokus ligger nu vid hur organisationer förebygger och förbereder för dessa extraordinära händelser snarare än att reagera när krisen väl har inträffat. Denna studie syftar till att vidga diskursen inom krishantering i en svensk kontext genom att undersöka svenska myndigheter och deras förmåga att vara proaktiva när det gäller krishantering, det vill säga arbeta redan före en kris. Baserad på Mitroffs ramverk för Crisis Leadership har myndigheterna analyserats genom en kvantitativ och kvalitativ undersökning. Av de 70 myndigheter som kontaktades skickades 42 enkäter tillbaka, vilket resulterade i en svarsfrekvens på 60 %. Resultaten från undersökningen visar att de svenska förvaltningsmyndigheterna inte uppfyller idealet för utveckla en proaktiv krishantering. De fyra faktorerna, kristyper, krismekanismer, krissystem och krisintressenter, är indikatorer för en proaktiv hållning. Dessa var inte representerade i de data som samlades in, utom den tredje faktorn som hade en proaktiv organisationskultur samt beredskapsaktiviteter, till exempel att ha en krisplan och en krisledningsgrupp. Slutsatsen är att svenska förvaltningsmyndigheter behöver utveckla en mer proaktiv inställning till sin krishantering rörande goda relationer med sina intressenter, med en krisportfölj som omfattar olika krisfamiljer, ta fram fler signaldetektorer och strategier för att förhindra krisen, till exempel företagens sociala ansvarsprogram (CSR-program). / There is no longer a question of whether an organization will suffer from a crisis; it is rather the question of when. It has been a shift in the discourse of the crisis communication area. Focus now lies in how to prevent and prepare for these extraordinary events instead of reacting when the crisis already has occured. This study aims to expand the crisis management area in a Swedish context by examining Swedish authorities and their capabilities to be proactive in the case of crisis management. Based of Mi- troffs framework for Crisis Leadership, the authorities capabilities have been analyzed through a quantitative and qualitative survey. From the 70 authorities that were contacted, 42 surveys were returned, resulting in an acceptable 60% response rate. The results from the survey show that the Swedish authorities do not fulfil the ideal for develop- ing a proactive crisis management. The four factors, crisis types, crisis mechanisms, crisis system and crisis stakeholder, are indicators for a proactive stance. These were not represented in the data that was gathered, except the third factor which were having a proactive organizational culture along with preparedness activities such as having a crisis plan and a crisis leadership team. The conclusion is that Swedish authorities needs to develop a more proactive approach to their crisis management regarding good relationships with their stakeholders, having a crisis portfolio that covers different crisis families, implement more signal detectors and strategies to prevent cri- sis, for example corporate social responsibilities program.

The current euro crisis is shaped by urgency and actuality. Since it affects a lot of people and different countries, it is also denoted by transboundary effects. Considering these circumstances, the call for quick crisis solution occurs. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to investigate the leadership issue during the euro crisis. Based on theoretical principles of crisis leadership, we examine the role and behavior of Germany in the euro crisis. Due to the fact that Germany is currently in a significant position, we narrow down the crisis leadership aspect to this specific view. Providing an overall and thorough picture, we investigate Germany’s leadership in the euro crisis from different perspectives. In order to achieve this purpose, we determine this issue from a political, economical and societal perception, which seem to be the most influencing factors in the case of the euro crisis. By assembling the crucial findings of these separate categories, we gain a broader perspective and hence a generalized evaluation and understanding of the German leadership style.

Thirteen qualitative interviews have been conducted with key individuals who have profound knowledge and experience in the subject of crisis communication. The thesis used a theory testing approach and highlights the main issues regarding the influence of intercultural competence in crisis information, and to what extent social media channels are used for crisis communication. Also, it covers how the leadership during crises affects the communication from the perspectives of the key individuals. In this empirical investigation, the analytical method of thematization has been used in order to select essential themes throughout the qualitative interviews. These themes have been compared to the relevant theories within the subject - crisis communication, intercultural competence, and social media in crisis situations. The emerging conclusions from this study were the importance of pre-existing relations between organizations and authorities in crisis situations, and the amplifications of crisis communication through crisis networks operating between organizations. Another conclusion was that proactive crisis communication plans need to be of a consise and general design to be practical in crisis situations. Furthermore, one conclusion was that most organizations according to the interviewees were aware of the absence of intercultural competence, but due to lack of resources this was not prioritized. The last conclusion was that social media channels have a high interest level during crisis situations, but was seldom used to a large extent during crises

Frågeställning: Hur kommunicerar och skapar mellanchefer mening under kris? Syfte: Vi vill skapa en större förståelse för hur mellanchefer arbetar med intern kommunikation och sensemaking under kris. Vi vill även undersöka på vilka sätt social distansering påverkar mellanchefers arbete med sensemaking och intern kommunikation under kris.   Metod: En kvalitativ tvärsnittsstudie har genomförts utifrån en deduktiv forskningsansats.  Resultat & Slutsats: Den viktigaste upptäckten är att mellanchefer tar på sig rollen som ett kommunikationsfilter i sensegiving processen, vilket kan leda till att medarbetarna inte får samma information i slutändan, vilket i sin tur ökar mängden informell kommunikation (ryktesspridning). Om den informella kommunikationen blir större än den formella kommunikationen kan det minska förtroendet för mellancheferna och i värsta fall resultera i intern kommunikationskris. Vi fann också att social distansering till följd av Folkhälsomyndighetens begränsningar kan öka risken för intern kommunikationskris på grund av bristande kontroll gällande den informella kommunikationen samt försvagat förtroende för ledarskapet. Slutligen framträder sensegiving och sensemaking som viktiga verktyg för mellanchefen i arbetet med att förebygga och förhindra psykisk ohälsa under krisen. Nyckelord: Sensemaking, sensegiving, internal communication, internal communication crisis, crisis management och crisis leadership / This study aims to examine how the middle manager creates meaning and communicates during an exceptional crisis. The purpose of the study is to raise awareness, and create a greater understanding of the importance, of the middle manager during a crisis, like Covid-19, in terms of sensemaking and internal communication. Our research question is: How does middle managers communicate and create meaning during a crisis?  To investigate the phenomenon, a cross-sectional study was used to provide a wider picture and enable comparisons between organisations. The study was done through a deductive research approach, and empirical data was obtained through a qualitative strategy.  The most important finding, is that middle managers take on the role of a communication filter in the sensegiving-process. This role, may result in employees not getting the same information, which in turn raises the amount of informal communication (spreading rumors). Moreover, if the informal communication becomes greater than the formal communication, it may threaten leadership confidence, which may result in an internal communication crisis.  We also found, that sensegiving and sensemaking become important tools for the middle manager to prevent mental illness, during social distancing and its restrictions, enforced by the Public Health Authority.   Finally, we present a theoretical contribution to increase understanding of the phenomenon.   Keywords: Sensemaking, sensegiving, internal communication, internal communication crisis, crisis management and crisis leadership

Syftet med studien är att fånga ledarens upplevelser och utmaningar kopplat till deras ledarskap och kommunikationen under pandemin. Studien bidrar med kunskap om hur olika ledares ledarskap och kommunikation har påverkats av pandemin, för att sedan dra lärdomar från det till framtida kriser. Det går tydligt att se utifrån resultatet i studien att ledarna har stött på utmaningar under pandemin i kommunikationen med medarbetarna som har tvingat ledarna att förändra sitt ledarskap och sättet de kommunicerar på med medarbetarna. Studien består av sex semistrukturerade intervjuer med personer med ledande positioner inom offentlig sektor i Sverige. Intervjuerna har sedan transkriberats och analyserats utifrån ledarskaps och kommunikationsteorier. Respondenternas svar visar att de upplever att de i egenskap av ledare har tappat delar av den fysiska och sociala kontakten med medarbetarna men upplever samtidigt att de har blivit mer tillgängliga och att mötena har blivit effektivare. Respondenterna har förändrat sitt ledarskap och kommunikation till följd av pandemin. Det går att utläsa då respondenternas ledarskap och kommunikation har förändrats genom att de har blivit mer tydliga och raka gentemot medarbetarna som en konsekvens av pandemin. / The purpose of the study is to capture the leader's experiences and challenges linked to their leadership and communication during the pandemic. The study will contribute knowledge about how different leaders' leadership and communication have been affected by the pandemic, and then draw lessons from it for future crises. It is clear from the results of the study that the leaders have encountered challenges during the pandemic in communication with the employees which has forced the leaders to change their leadership and the way they communicate with the employees. The study consists of six semi-structured interviews with people with leading positions in the public sector in Sweden. The interviews have since been transcribed and analyzed based on leadership and communication theories. The respondents' answers show that they, as leaders, have lost parts of the physical and social contact with the employees, but at the same time feel that they have become more accessible and that the meetings have become more efficient. The respondents have changed their leadership and communication as a result of the pandemic. This can be read as the respondents' leadership and communication have changed as they have become clearer and more direct towards the employees as a consequence of the pandemic.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to gain greater understanding of crisis management by examining the ongoing situation with covid-19 and se how leaders are working to manage the crisis situation. We also want to describe what leaders focus on in a crisis. Method: The study is based on qualitative research with an inductive research approach. The study is also based on a cross-sectional design. The material from the study’s data collection has since been analyzed based on grounded theory. Conclusion: The study’s conclusion is that all crises are unique which also means that crisis management and crisis leadership differ depending on the crisis situation. However, there are some common features about how leaders act in a crisis, such as the introduction of distance work and communication which is an important part of crisis management. The study also showed that leaders during a crisis prioritize among other things, employees well-being and communication.

Nowadays crisis leadership must display greater representation in  organizational  studies for  the  reason  that  leadership  organizing  capability  is  constituted  through communication. This  hesis  employs  a  sensemaking  perspective  to  obtain  a  broader  understanding  of the  ways  leadership  unfolds  under  abrupt  uncertain  circumstances  that  are  also vulnerable  to  changes  in  the  environment,  such  as  crises. Besides,  this  study  presents  the  particularity  of  delving  into  the  centrality  of communication  from  a  constructionist  view  in  order  to  understand  how  crisis  leadership is  constituted  through  the  communicative  interactions  of  individuals. In  order  to  do  this,  this  qualitative  study  displays  the  sensemaking  of  20  Swedish crisis  managers  to  get  their  own  perceptions  of  communication  effectiveness  in  crisis management,  how  they  make  sense  of  self-identity  in  the  role  of  crisis  leadership,  and  the part  of  communication  in  the  meaning  construction  of  realities  during  a  crisis. The  results  display  that  crisis  leaders  recognize  the  fundamental  role  of communication  in  the  meaning-construction  and  to  maintain  a  shared  sense  of  meaning among  individuals.  Crisis  leaders  concern  about  communicating  stories  of  learning,  and following-up.  They  show  a  high  sensitivity  to  anticipate  the  crisis  and  emphasize  that effective  communication  builds  good  relationships  between  networks.  Managers acknowledge  that  good  communication  skills  ensure  effective  leadership  during  a  crisis. In  making  sense  of  crisis  leadership  this  study  shows  the  intersection  of  leadership, organizing,  and  communication  as  intertwined  processes. / Krisledarskap  är  ett  område  som  behöver  undersökas  mer,  särskilt  eftersom  den organiserande  funktionen  ledare  har  vid  en  kris  utgörs  av  kommunikation.  Denna master-uppsats  använder  teorier  om  meningsskapande  för  att  nå  en  bredare  förståelse  för hur  ledarskap  utövas  kommunikativt  under  osäkra  omständigheter  och  svåra  situationer i  omgivningen  såsom  kriser. Undersökningen  utgår  från  en  konstruktivistisk  syn  på  kommunikationens  centrala roll  för  att  förstå  hur  krisledarskapet  formas  genom  individers  interaktion. Studien  omfattar  intervjuer  med  20  svenska  krishanterare  som  skapar  mening  kring sina  erfarenheter  och  uppfattningar  om  effektiv  kommunikation  vid  krishantering,  hur de  förstår  sin  egen  identitet  i  rollen  som  krisledare  samt  kommunikationens  betydelse  för att  skapa  bilder  av  verkligheten  under  en  kris. Resultaten  visar  att  krisledare  betonar  den  grundläggande  betydelse  som kommunikation  har  för  meningsskapandet  och  för  att  upprätthålla  en  delad  och gemensam  förståelse  bland  individer  vid  en  kris.  Krisledare  är  engagerade  i  att kommunicera  historier  som  bidrar  till  lärande  vid  uppföljningar  efter  kriser.  De  visar ocskå  en  stor  känslighet  och  förmåga  att  kunna  förutse  kriser  och  betonar  att  effektiv kommunikation  bygger  goda  relationer  i  nätverk  som  är  viktiga  i  krishanteringen. Krisledarna  betonar  även  att  god  kommunikationsförmåga  säkerställer  effektivt ledarskap  under  en  kris.  Denna  studie  visar  att  det  är  i  skärningspunkten  mellan ledarskap,  organisering  och  kommunikation  som  krisledarskapet  uppstår  i sammanflätade  processer.

Universities have had a tumultuous history in terms of crises. Though crises have always existed, its definition and emphasis in the landscape of higher education has dramatically changed in the last 50 years. For this reason, the study and implementation of crisis management systems have become a growing phenomenon on campuses around the nation. However, as the types of crises institutions face diversifies, communities’ emphasis on leadership accountability has also become more magnified. The role of the president, thus, has become increasingly relevant and critical to the conversation concerning campus security and safety. The purpose of this study was to better understand the phenomenon of crisis leadership in higher education. A case study of the State University System of Florida was chosen, interviewing all available university presidents and crisis managers. Its diversity in population, infrastructure and mission is the reason it was selected as an appropriate case. This study sought insight on how SUS presidents and crisis managers understood the concepts of crisis, crisis leadership and crisis management; what they perceived their roles and responsibilities to be throughout the crisis management cycle; and how these definitions and roles created and sustained a culture of safety, security and preparedness. The 16 study participants (6 presidents and 10 crisis managers) offered a great deal of insight on how they defined crisis leadership and its respective roles pre-, during and post-crises. Participants believed that the differing definitions of crisis; the university’s culture towards crisis management; the roles played by the university, presidents and crisis managers; resources (established and lacking); as well as the inevitable variability of crises, all played a critical role in leadership. The study’s findings supported Muffet-Willett’s position that crisis leadership is fundamentally connected to the relationship between presidents and crisis managers. Both must offer support, tangibly and intangibly, to one another so that others across the university see the importance being placed on crisis management. Findings of this study supported the assumption made in the literature by student affairs authors that presidents are critical to crisis management. In addition, I concluded that crisis managers are also critical to crisis leadership.

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