Cette thèse porte sur l’étude structurale de mélanges de fluorures fondus utilisés pour la production d’aluminium par électrolyse. Ce procédé est obtenu par dissolution de l'alumine (Al₂O₃) dans un bain de cryolithe fondue (NaF-AlF₃ plus quelques additifs) à 960°C. Afin d’obtenir des données d’entrée pour la modélisation électrocinétique des phénomènes de transport durant le procédé, une meilleure description de la spéciation dans les bains en fonction de leur température et de leur composition est nécessaire.Pour déterminer cette spéciation in situ, nous avons développé une démarche originale combinant la spectroscopie par Résonance Magnétique Nucléaire (RMN) à haute température avec des simulations de Dynamique Moléculaire (DM) couplés à des calculs de premiers principes. Ces derniers basés sur la théorie de la fonctionnelle de la densité (DFT) ont permis de calculer les paramètres d’interaction mis en jeu lors des expériences RMN et d’évaluer la qualité des modèles issus de la DM par comparaison avec les données expérimentales.Les mesures et simulations effectuées dans les systèmes binaires MF-AlF₃ (M= Na ou K) ont confirmé la présence d’ions F‾ et d’espèces anioniques [AlFₓ]³‾ˣ avec une durée de vie comprise entre 5 et 25 ps. La probabilité de former des dimères du type [Al₂Fm]⁶‾ᵐ est inférieure à 10 %. Quel que soit l’alcalin, l’ajout d’alumine dans ces systèmes affecte la proportion d’espèce AlF5²‾ pour former des oxyfluoroaluminates : [Al₂OF6] ²‾, [Al₂OF8]⁴‾, [Al₂O₂F4] ²‾, [Al₂O₂F6]⁴‾ et [Al₂O₃F₂]²‾. Ces derniers sont peu influencés par la présence de CaF₂. En se dissociant partiellement, celui-ci contribue à modifier les équilibres chimiques vers les milieux plus basiques et à augmenter la coordinence moyenne des ions aluminium. / This thesis deals with the structural study of molten fluorides mixtures used for aluminium production by electrolysis. This process is obtained by dissolving alumina (Al₂O₃) in a molten cryolite bath (NaF-AlF₃ plus some additives) at 960°C. In order to obtain input data for the electrokinetic modeling of transport phenomena during the process, a better description of speciation in baths as a function of their composition and temperature is required.To determine this in situ speciation, we developed an original approach combining high temperature nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy with Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations coupled with first principle calculations. Based on the density functional theory (DFT), it was possible to calculate the interaction parameters involved in NMR experiments and to evaluate the quality of the models derived from MD when compared to the experimental data.The measurements and simulations carried out in the MF-AlF₃ binary systems (M = Na or K) confirmed the presence of F- and anionic species [AlFₓ]³‾ˣ with a lifetime between 5 and 25 ps. The probability of forming dimers [Al2Fm]6-m is less than 10%. Regardless of alkali, the addition of alumina in these systems affects the proportion of AlF5²‾ species to form oxyfluoroaluminates: [Al₂OF6] ²‾, [Al₂OF8]⁴‾, [Al₂O₂F4] ²‾, [Al₂O₂F6]⁴‾ et [Al₂O₃F₂]²‾. The latter are little influenced by the presence of CaF₂. By partially dissociating, this contributes to modifying the chemical equilibria towards the more basic media and to increasing the average coordination of the aluminium ions.

Os estudos visando o aproveitamento dos minerais de interesse econômico associados ao Granito Madeira, Pitinga, AM, foram subdivididos em três etapas. A primeira etapa compreendeu a realização de estudos de caracterização tecnológica, com um detalhado estudo mineralógico enfocando a forma de ocorrência e granulometria de liberação dos minerais de interesse. Foi identificado pela primeira vez a presença de criolita, mineral raro, cujo valor agregado supera o conjunto de todos os demais minerais de interesse econômico. Verificou-se que a granulometria de liberação dos minerais pesados era muito distinta; valores de 80% são observados para a zirconita acumulada abaixo de 0,595 mm, para a cassiterita abaixo de 0,297 mm e para os minerais de nióbio abaixo de 0,149 mm. A segunda etapa compreendeu, essencialmente, a realização de estudos de desenvolvimento de processo de concentração dos minerais pesados, incluindo ensaios de concentração densitária e separações eletrostática e magnética. Foram estabelecidas as características dos concentrados passíveis de serem obtidos e suas respectivas recuperações metalúrgicas, bem como definido um fluxograma de beneficiamento a ser confirmado em escala piloto. A terceira etapa teve por enfoque principal o desenvolvimento de uma rota de processo para a concentração da criolita, a qual, embora ainda não otimizada, é sumariada a seguir: - deslamagem dos rejeitos da concentração densitária, seguido de flotação aniônica direta, mediante a utilização de \"tal oil\" como coletor e amido de milho e como processor; - remoagem do concentrado \"rougher\" a menos 0,074 mm, em circuito fechado com classificação, seguido de flotação reversa do concentrado \"rougher\" remoído, com coletor catiônico, Armacflote MIC-66 (marca Akzo); - descoleta do concentrado da flotação catiônica, seguido de flotação aniônica com sulfonato de petróleo, Aero 840 (marca Cyanamid), para a separação entre a criolita e os demais minerais de flúor portadores de cálcio; - separação magnética de alta intensidade via úmida, \"WHIMS\", do concentrado da última etapa de flotação (com 0,5% a 0,7% de Fe203), visando minimizar os teores de ferro; - lixiviação clorídrica do produto não-magnético, com a redução suplementar dos teores de ferro, atingindo valores de 0,16 a 0,20% de Fe203. / Studies at the Pitinga primary ore envolved three stages. The first one consisted of detailed mineralogical studies emphasizing the occurrence patterns and the degree of liberation of the minerals in the granitic ground ore. Cryolite in the Pitinga ore was then identified for the first time. The liberation sizes for heavy minerals are quite distinct; a liberation degree of 80% was observed for zircon accumulated under 0,595 mm for cassiterite under 0,297 mm and for niobium minerals under 0,149 mm. The second stage comprised essentially mineral dressing studies to concentrate the heavy minerals. Discontinuous gravity concentration, electrostatic and magnetic separation tests were performed to establish the characteristics of the mineral concentrates and their recoveries, as well as to define a plant flowsheet to be confirmed in continuous pilot plant tests. The definition of a mineral processing route for cryolite concentration was the main object of the last stage. The following sequence of procedures, to be further investigated, was established: - disliming of gravity concentration taillings, followed by direct anionic flotation of fluorine minerals, using tall oil as collector and starch as depressant; - regrinding of the rougher concentrate to minus 0,074 mm, in a closed circuit with classification, followed by reverse cationic flotation to remove silicates, with Armacflote MIC-66 (Akzo trade mark); - remotion of the cationic collector and subsequence anionic flotation with petroleum sulfonate as collector (Aero 840, Cyanamid trade mark), to separate cryolite from the other fluorine minerals and small amounts of silicates; - wet high intensity magnetic separation (WHIMS) on the obtained flotation concentrate; - dilute hydrochloric acid leaching of the non-magnetic product from WHIMS to reduce the iron contamination levels to around 0,16% to 0,25% Fe203.

Os estudos visando o aproveitamento dos minerais de interesse econômico associados ao Granito Madeira, Pitinga, AM, foram subdivididos em três etapas. A primeira etapa compreendeu a realização de estudos de caracterização tecnológica, com um detalhado estudo mineralógico enfocando a forma de ocorrência e granulometria de liberação dos minerais de interesse. Foi identificado pela primeira vez a presença de criolita, mineral raro, cujo valor agregado supera o conjunto de todos os demais minerais de interesse econômico. Verificou-se que a granulometria de liberação dos minerais pesados era muito distinta; valores de 80% são observados para a zirconita acumulada abaixo de 0,595 mm, para a cassiterita abaixo de 0,297 mm e para os minerais de nióbio abaixo de 0,149 mm. A segunda etapa compreendeu, essencialmente, a realização de estudos de desenvolvimento de processo de concentração dos minerais pesados, incluindo ensaios de concentração densitária e separações eletrostática e magnética. Foram estabelecidas as características dos concentrados passíveis de serem obtidos e suas respectivas recuperações metalúrgicas, bem como definido um fluxograma de beneficiamento a ser confirmado em escala piloto. A terceira etapa teve por enfoque principal o desenvolvimento de uma rota de processo para a concentração da criolita, a qual, embora ainda não otimizada, é sumariada a seguir: - deslamagem dos rejeitos da concentração densitária, seguido de flotação aniônica direta, mediante a utilização de \"tal oil\" como coletor e amido de milho e como processor; - remoagem do concentrado \"rougher\" a menos 0,074 mm, em circuito fechado com classificação, seguido de flotação reversa do concentrado \"rougher\" remoído, com coletor catiônico, Armacflote MIC-66 (marca Akzo); - descoleta do concentrado da flotação catiônica, seguido de flotação aniônica com sulfonato de petróleo, Aero 840 (marca Cyanamid), para a separação entre a criolita e os demais minerais de flúor portadores de cálcio; - separação magnética de alta intensidade via úmida, \"WHIMS\", do concentrado da última etapa de flotação (com 0,5% a 0,7% de Fe203), visando minimizar os teores de ferro; - lixiviação clorídrica do produto não-magnético, com a redução suplementar dos teores de ferro, atingindo valores de 0,16 a 0,20% de Fe203. / Studies at the Pitinga primary ore envolved three stages. The first one consisted of detailed mineralogical studies emphasizing the occurrence patterns and the degree of liberation of the minerals in the granitic ground ore. Cryolite in the Pitinga ore was then identified for the first time. The liberation sizes for heavy minerals are quite distinct; a liberation degree of 80% was observed for zircon accumulated under 0,595 mm for cassiterite under 0,297 mm and for niobium minerals under 0,149 mm. The second stage comprised essentially mineral dressing studies to concentrate the heavy minerals. Discontinuous gravity concentration, electrostatic and magnetic separation tests were performed to establish the characteristics of the mineral concentrates and their recoveries, as well as to define a plant flowsheet to be confirmed in continuous pilot plant tests. The definition of a mineral processing route for cryolite concentration was the main object of the last stage. The following sequence of procedures, to be further investigated, was established: - disliming of gravity concentration taillings, followed by direct anionic flotation of fluorine minerals, using tall oil as collector and starch as depressant; - regrinding of the rougher concentrate to minus 0,074 mm, in a closed circuit with classification, followed by reverse cationic flotation to remove silicates, with Armacflote MIC-66 (Akzo trade mark); - remotion of the cationic collector and subsequence anionic flotation with petroleum sulfonate as collector (Aero 840, Cyanamid trade mark), to separate cryolite from the other fluorine minerals and small amounts of silicates; - wet high intensity magnetic separation (WHIMS) on the obtained flotation concentrate; - dilute hydrochloric acid leaching of the non-magnetic product from WHIMS to reduce the iron contamination levels to around 0,16% to 0,25% Fe203.

Résumé : La mesure des profils transitoires et de la vitesse de solidification sont deux données importantes pour le contrôle de procédés industriels impliquant un changement de phase. Dans le cas de l’électrolyse de l’aluminium, ce processus de solidification assure la protection du système et influe sur la performance énergétique du procédé de fabrication. Malheureusement, ces données se révèlent, dans la plupart des cas, difficilement accessibles. Ce travail de thèse porte sur le développement de nouveaux outils permettant l’étude et la caractérisation de la solidification de matériaux à changement de phase et à haute température. L’objectif est de développer un système de mesure du front de solidification de matériaux à changement de phase non destructif et ne perturbant pas le milieu de mesure, tout en assurant une précision et une réponse suffisamment rapide pour exploiter de nouvelles stratégies de contrôle dans les cuves d’électrolyse. Ce travail couple une étude expérimentale fondamentale de la solidification de la cryolithe avec une modélisation numérique de phénomène de changement de phase solide-liquide dans des conditions proches du fonctionnement de cuves d’électrolyse. // Abstract : Measurement of transient solidification fronts and of solidification rate are two important data for controlling industrial processes involving a solid-liquid phase change. In the case of aluminium electrolysis, this solidification process protects the system and affects the energy performance of the manufacturing process. Unfortunately, these data are not easy to obtain in most cases. This thesis focuses on the development of new tools for the study and on the solidification characterization of phase change materials at high temperature. The goal is to develop a nondestructive solidification front measurement system for phase change materials without disturbing the measurement medium, while ensuring accuracy and a fast enough response time to exploit new control strategies in electrolysis cells. This work couples a fundamental experimental study of the cryolite solidification with numerical modeling of solid-liquid phase change phenomenon under conditions close to those during normal operation of electrolytic cells.

Rsum : La mesure des profils transitoires et de la vitesse de solidification sont deux donnes importantes pour le contrle de procds industriels impliquant un changement de phase. Dans le cas de llectrolyse de laluminium, ce processus de solidification assure la protection du systme et influe sur la performance nergtique du procd de fabrication. Malheureusement, ces donnes se rvlent, dans la plupart des cas, difficilement accessibles. Ce travail de thse porte sur le dveloppement de nouveaux outils permettant ltude et la caractrisation de la solidification de matriaux changement de phase et haute temprature. Lobjectif est de dvelopper un systme de mesure du front de solidification de matriaux changement de phase non destructif et ne perturbant pas le milieu de mesure, tout en assurant une prcision et une rponse suffisamment rapide pour exploiter de nouvelles stratgies de contrle dans les cuves dlectrolyse. Ce travail couple une tude exprimentale fondamentale de la solidification de la cryolithe avec une modlisation numrique de phnomne de changement de phase solide-liquide dans des conditions proches du fonctionnement de cuves dlectrolyse. // Abstract : Measurement of transient solidification fronts and of solidification rate are two important data for controlling industrial processes involving a solid-liquid phase change. In the case of aluminium electrolysis, this solidification process protects the system and affects the energy performance of the manufacturing process. Unfortunately, these data are not easy to obtain in most cases. This thesis focuses on the development of new tools for the study and on the solidification characterization of phase change materials at high temperature. The goal is to develop a nondestructive solidification front measurement system for phase change materials without disturbing the measurement medium, while ensuring accuracy and a fast enough response time to exploit new control strategies in electrolysis cells. This work couples a fundamental experimental study of the cryolite solidification with numerical modeling of solid-liquid phase change phenomenon under conditions close to those during normal operation of electrolytic cells.

On April 9, 1940, Germany invaded Denmark. Instantly, the fate and status of Greenland, a Danish colony, was thrust into limbo. During the war, Greenland’s vital mineral resources and location made it significant for the warring parties on both sides of the Atlantic. However, conflicting international corporate and political interests made any act to defend the island on the part of the Allies, or the officially neutral Americans, problematic. Within a year of the Danish occupation, the American government had signed an agreement for the defense of Greenland, extending the protection of both the Monroe Doctrine and the American military to the island. This action was an important step in the formal expansion of American influence in the Western Hemisphere that occurred during the Second World War. This thesis argues that global economic, political, and technological changes led to Greenland’s increased geopolitical significance and set the stage for a shift in the balance of power within the North Atlantic Triangle. It demonstrates how decisions relating to the security of the island came to be made and how conflicting interests within and between governments affected the genesis of the occupation. It explores how Winston Churchill’s decision to mine the North Sea led to the American occupation of Greenland and examines the ways in which the effects of Churchill’s actions raised concerns in Canada about the possibility of a British defeat, which in turn led Mackenzie King, the Canadian Prime Minister, to align his foreign policy closer to that of the United States’ President Roosevelt. This thesis also asserts that Roosevelt successfully used the potential foreign occupation of Greenland to demonstrate to the American public the dangers of foreign conflicts to the United States and to further his hemispheric security objectives both domestically and abroad. These events had a profound and lasting impact on the relationships within the North Atlantic Triangle and on political identity in Greenland, and signalled an important shift in the foreign policy of the United States toward greater American involvement in world affairs.