No description available.

Recent concerns of declining bee populations have highlighted the importance of monitoring wild bees, but bee community assessments are hampered by species complexes that are difficult to identify. Bees in the genus Melissodes are often considered challenging to identify to species, with two widespread North American species, M. agilis Cresson and M. trinodis Robertson, being particularly difficult due to similar morphology, geographic ranges, and preferred floral hosts. These two species exhibit characteristics of cryptic species complexes, raising the possibility that our current understanding of their taxonomy is incomplete. We conducted a study to clarify the species boundaries within this complex, and to test if geometric morphometrics could be used to differentiate its member taxa. We sequenced fragments of the mitochondrial COI gene from 112 M. agilis/trinodis specimens, and integrated them into a phylogeny based on published reference sequences of over 70 Melissodes species. We additionally landmarked forewing venation for 102 of these specimens, tested if forewing morphometrics was associated with sex and phylogenetic clade, and tested if forewing morphometrics could accurately assign specimens to their proper clade and sex. Phylogenetic reconstructions resulted in nearly all specimens being assigned to three primary clades, with one clade containing reference sequences for M. agilis and M. trinodis, and two clades appearing to be undetermined cryptic taxa. Forewing morphometrics differed between clades and sexes, and was able to assign specimens to their proper clade or sex with over 80% accuracy, although accuracy of classification to clade declined to between 33-93% after cross-validation. Our results suggest the existence of cryptic diversity within M. agilis and M. trinodis, and indicate that forewing morphometrics can characterize some of this diversity. M. agilis and M. trinodis may comprise a complex of 3-5 cryptic species, but whether these are described or undescribed species is unknown. Also unclear is the degree to which the potential cryptic species contribute to the economically important sunflower pollination services currently considered to be conducted by M. agilis and M. trinodis. We encourage additional study of this complex to determine the nature of this cryptic diversity and resolve the taxonomic questions this study has raised.

A common alga of oligotrophic slightly acidic fresh water habitats, Synura sphagnicola, has never been suspected for a presence of cryptic diversity. The publicly available SSU rDNA sequences showed very slight genetic differences between the S. sphagnicola isolates. However, I suspected that if any cryptic lineages exist, the sequencing of ITS region will show the differences between them. A total of 37 S. sphagnicola sequences (36 from Europe and 1 from Korea) were analyzed in this thesis. The ITS rDNA sequencing clearly recognized the presence of two distinct cryptic species, referred here as lineage SP1 and SP2. The morphological analysis of 14 cultivated strains (6 belonging to the lineage SP1 and 8 to the lineage SP2) validated the genetic distinction. The statistical analyses showed that 4 morphological aspects (length of a scale, width of a scale, length of a spine, length of a rim) were found to have significant differences in length of measured factors between species. The most visible difference is in the length of a spine that is connected to the scale. The analysis of published S. sphagnicola scales showed that the two lineages can be morphologically distinguished also in natural conditions. According to the morphological analyses, the lineage SP2 (species with a longer spine)...

Urbanisation is a key driver in the loss, fragmentation and modification of natural habitats resulting in the global loss of biodiversity. As the human population, and consequently the rate of urbanisation, continues to increase exponentially it is important to understand how to sustain and enhance biodiversity within the built environment. Cities comprise a complex assortment of habitat types yet relatively little is known of how its composition and spatial configuration can influence species presence or foraging activities. It is therefore necessary to examine habitat use and biodiversity patterns at multiple spatial scales to fully understand how species are responding to the urban matrix. There are few other orders of animals that are as strongly associated with people as bats (Chiroptera); for some bat species human habitations provide roosts and adaptations of the environment provide food sources. However bat species richness generally declines with increasing urbanisation indicating that many species are not able to persist in highly urbanised areas. In this thesis, I show that the behaviour, habitat preferences, and distribution of bats are strongly influenced by the built environment at both a local and landscape scale. Although many animal species are known to exhibit sex differences in habitat use, adaptability to the urban landscape is commonly examined at the species level without consideration of potential intraspecific differences. I found that female Pipistrellus pygmaeus show greater selectivity in foraging locations within urban woodland in comparison to males at both a local and landscape scale. There was a lower probability of finding females within woodlands which were poorly connected, highly cluttered, with a high edge: interior ratio and fewer mature trees. The results have important implications for our understanding of how to manage areas for breeding females and highlight the need to supplement acoustic monitoring with trapping data to assess sex differences in habitat use. Determining how morphological or behavioural traits can influence species adaptability to the built environment may enable us to improve the effectiveness of conservation efforts. The morphological similarities between P. pygmaeus and P. pipistrellus suggest that both species should respond similarly to the urban matrix, however I found differential habitat use occurring within a variety of urban habitats (e.g. woodland and waterways) and at a landscape scale. In urban woodland there was a higher probability of P. pygmaeus activity relative to P. pipistrellus in woodlands with low clutter and understory cover which were surrounded by low levels of built environment. Many bat species are strongly associated with aquatic or adjacent riparian habitats yet we know little about the utilisation of urban waterways by bats. After surveying urban waterways throughout the UK, I was able to show that the built environment can negatively affect a variety of bat species from the riparian zone up to 3km from a waterway. This indicates that beneficial urban waterway rehabilitation schemes for bats require management at multiple spatial scales, from retaining a vegetated riparian zone at the local scale to highlighting the necessity for conservation funding to be spent on the implementation of landscape scale environmental improvement schemes that encompass the entire urban matrix. Undertaking surveys to confirm species presence or to estimate population sizes can be difficult, particularly for elusive species such as bats. I was able to demonstrate a variety of ways to increase surveying efficiency (e.g. the use of an acoustic lure to increase bat-capture rate) and a significant relationship between bat activity and the relative abundance of certain species of bat which can maximise the knowledge of diversity in an area whilst minimising wildlife disturbances. Urbanisation has also had strong negative effects on many insect groups, such as moths, which are important components of the diets of many bat species. I found that woodland vegetation characteristics were more important than the surrounding landscapes in determining the abundance, species richness, and species diversity of moth assemblages within urban woodland. This indicates that management at a local scale to ensure provision of good quality habitat may be more beneficial for moth populations than improving habitat connectivity across the urban matrix. The findings presented in this thesis have important implications for our understanding of the adaptability of species to the built environment and for the management and monitoring of bat populations. It also highlights that even common bat species are negatively affected by urbanisation and much greater attention should be paid to securing their future within the urban landscape.

The subfamily Phryninae (Arachnida: Amblypygi) has not been recently revised, which causes many difficulties for species identification. Thus far, no phylogenetic hypothesis has been proposed for this subfamily. The nomenclature of diagnostic characters is not uniform, and most illustrations are poorly detailed. We reviewed the subfamily Phryninae, redescribed all known species, and described six new species. We proposed a unified nomenclature for teeth of chelicerae and pedipalpal spines. We performed a phylogenetic analysis using total evidence and direct optimization in the program POY. We built a morphological matrix of 92 terminals and 174 characters, and a molecular matrix with 1557 pb (markers COl, 12s and 16s). Both sets of information were analyzed separately to understand their influence over the total evidence analysis. The results of the three analyses were different: the morphological analysis did not recover the subfamily Phryninae as monophyletic, this analysis produced 90 equally parsimonious topologies, however, the strict concensus tree had good resolution. The molecular analysis did not recover the family Phrynidae as monophyletic, but Phryninae was recovered. Total evidence analysis allowed for obtain just one more parsimonious hypothesis which included all species of Phrynidae, and resolved the politomies obtained with the analysis using morphology only, in this hypothesis Phrynidae and its subfamilies are monophyletic. ln all results, the genera of Phryninae were polyphyletic. We selected the tree of total evidence analysis to build a new taxonomic proposal, we decided to keep Acanthophrynus, Phrynus, and Paraphrynus and to create five new genera: Caicedophrynus gen. nov., Cronopiophrynus gen. nov., Gabophrynus gen. nov., Gentiloprynus gen. nov., Girondophrynus gen. novo Accordingly, we proposed 44 nomenclatural changes. Our results showed that the diversity of this group could be greater, therefore, we highlight that populational and phylogeographic studies of Phryninae are important / A subfamília Phryninae (Arachnida: Amblypygi) não possui uma revisão recente. Isso traz muitas dificuldades na identificação das espécies. Nenhuma hipótese filogenética para a subfamília foi proposta. A nomenclatura dos caracteres diagnósticos não é uniforme e a maioria das ilustrações não é suficientemente detalhada. Aqui, nós revisamos a subfamília Phryninae, redescrevemos as espécies conhecidas e seis espécies novas, e propomos uma nomenclatura uniforme para os dentes das quelíceras e espinhos dos pedipalpos. Nós realizamos uma análise filogenética usando evidência total e otimização direta no programa POY. Construímos uma matriz morfológica de 92 terminais e 174 caracteres, e uma matriz molecular usando 1557 pb (marcadores COI, l2S e 16S). Os dois conjuntos de informação foram analisados separadamente para perceber a influência de cada um deles na análise de evidência total. Os resultados das três análises foram diferentes. A análise morfológica não recuperou a subfamília Phryninae como monofilética, resultando em 90 topologias igualmente parcimoniosas, Porém, a árvore de consenso estrito teve uma boa resolução. A análise molecular recuperou Phryninae como monofilética, embora não tenha recuperado a família Phrynidae. A análise de evidência total permitiu obter uma única hipótese mais parcimoniosa a qual inclui todas as espécies de Phrynidae, e permitiu resolver as politomias obtidas na análise morfológica. Nesta hipótese, tanto Phrynidae como suas subfamílias se mantiveram monofiléticas. Em todos os resultados, os gêneros de Phryninae são polifiléticos. A árvore da análise de evidência total foi selecionada para elaborar uma nova proposta taxonômica. Mantivemos os gêneros Acanthophrynus, Phrynus e Paraphrynus e criamos cinco gêneros novos: Caicedophrynus gen. nov., Cronopiophrynus gen. nov., Gabophrynus gen. nov., Gentilophrynus gen. nov., e Girondophrynus gen. novo Propusemos 44 mudanças nomenclaturais, Nossos resultados sugerem que a diversidade do grupo é maior do que a conhecida. Isso nos faz considerar importante análises populacionais e filogeográficas em Phryninae

A família Tephritidae congrega várias espécies de moscas-das-frutas que utilizam frutos como substrato alimentar no estágio larval, adquirindo o status de inseto-praga quando esses frutos são de valor comercial. O gênero Anastrepha é endêmico do Continente Americano e compreende cerca de 212 espécies descritas, das quais 109 ocorrem no Brasil. A espécie nominal Anastrepha fraterculus representa um complexo de espécies crípticas e se encontra distribuída pela Região Neotropical e sul dos Estados Unidos. No Brasil, através do estudo de diversas características biológicas e do marcador molecular ITS-1 (espaçador ribossômico nuclear), identificou-se a existência de três espécies crípticas no complexo fraterculus, a Anastrepha sp.1 affinis fraterculus, A. sp.2 aff. fraterculus e A. sp.3 aff. fraterculus. Marcadores gênicos presentes no DNA mitocondrial, como o gene cytochrome oxidase I (COI), são ferramentas amplamente utilizadas em análises filogenéticas, pois esta molécula apresenta características distintas do DNA nuclear, como o fato de possuir herança predominantemente materna, apresentar ausência ou baixíssima taxa de recombinação na maioria dos táxons, além de altas taxas mutacionais. Estas características possibilitam a obtenção de dados importantes na interpretação das relações entre as espécies. Amostras do complexo fraterculus (A. sp.1, A. sp.2, A. sp.3) de 14 localidades (média de 5 indivíduos / localidade) no sudeste do Brasil, uma amostra de A sp.4 do Equador e dois grupos externos (A. grandis e A. striata) foram utilizados. Fragmentos de 1139bp do gene COI foram amplificados e sequenciados, 45 haplótipos foram identificados: 30 em A. sp.1, 5 em A. sp.2 e 17 em A. sp.3. A distância média entre as espécies foi de 0,021 e o Fst médio foi 0,347 indicando estruturação populacional muito alta e pequena distância entre os haplótipos, que não apresentaram diferenças fixadas entre as espécies. Os testes de desvio de neutralidade apresentaram valores significativamente negativos. Os testes de seleção evidenciaram a atuação de seleção purificadora com baixos valores de Ka/Ks e significância no Z-teste de seleção. A análise filogenética mostrou fortes evidências de introgressão e não separou as diferentes entidades em clados distintos. Houve a formação de dois ramos principais, um constituído quase que exclusivamente por amostras de A. sp.1, e apenas duas amostras de A. sp.3, e outro que reuniu todas as espécies do complexo. Os dois principais grupos de haplótipos também foram visualizados na rede de haplótipos que mostrou indícios de expansão populacional. Quando somado ao estudo sequências depositadas em bancos de dados por outros autores, a espécie nominal A. fraterculus apresentou em sua distribuição 5 grupos de haplótipos mitocondriais. Dois deles ocorrem no Brasil, um com amostras do México e Costa Rica, um na Guatemala e Venezuela (baixa latitude) e um com indivíduos da Colômbia e Venezuela (alta latitude), sendo que os grupos Brasileiros também reuniram amostras da Argentina e do Equador. Assim, as sequências de COI não permitem a caracterização das entidades do complexo fraterculus apesar de indicar a estruturação populacional e a hipótese mais provável é a de que tenha havido introgressão da molécula mitocondrial entre as espécies do complexo com posterior expansão / The Tephritidae family comprises fruit flies species whose larvae feed and develop in fruits, many of which are commercial varieties and thus the species assume economic significance. Anastrepha genus is distributed throughout the Neotropical region and Southern United States. Analyses of biological characteristics and of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS-1) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA allowed the characterization of three cryptic species of the fraterculus complex in Brazil: Anastrepha sp.1 affinis fraterculus, Anastrepha sp.2 aff. fraterculus and Anastrepha sp.3 aff. fraterculus. Mitochondrial markers as gene cytochrome oxidase I (COI) are largely used in phylogenetic analyses because they have maternal inheritance, none or low recombination and high mutation rates compared to the nuclear DNA. Hence, analyses of the complex based in this marker will offer a divergent perspective from nuclear DNA for inferences on the evolutive relationships between different species. Samples from the fraterculus complex (A. sp.1, A. sp.2, A. sp.3) from 15 localities (average of 5 individuals/ locality) in southeastern Brazil, one sample of A. sp.4 from Ecuador and two outgroups (A. grandis and A. striata) were employed and COI sequences of 1139bp were amplified and analyzed. We identified 45 haplotypes: 30 in A. sp.1, 5 in A.sp.2 and 17 in A. sp.3. The mean distance between the haplotypes was 0.021 and mean Fst 0.347, indicating high population structure and low mitochondrial distance. The neutrality tests had significantly neutral values. The selection tests revealed the action of purifying selection with low values of Ka/Ks and significance in the Z-test selection. Phylogenetic analysis showed strong evidences of introgression and did not separate the various entities in distinct clades grouping the three species in a single branch; there was also the formation of another main branch formed almost exclusively by strains of A. sp.1 and only two samples of A. sp.3. The two main groups of haplotypes were also seen in the haplotype network that showed evidence of population expansion. The analysis of the philogenetic tree based on mitochondrial COI showed strong evidence for introgression. No fixed differences between species were found though mtDNA marker shows a lot of polymorphism. When added sequences deposited in databases by other authors the nominal species A. fraterculus presented in its distribution five groups of mitochondrial haplotypes, two of them in Brazil, one with samples from Mexico and Costa Rica, one in Guatemala and Venezuela and one with individuals from Colombia. The Brazilian groups also collected samples from Argentina and Ecuador. Therefore, the COI sequences do not allow the characterization of the entities of the fraterculus complex, although structure among the species is shown. The most likely hypothesis is that introgression has happened in the mitochondrial molecule among the species with further expansion

A taxonomia de foraminíferos planctônicos é fonte de discussões desde o início de sua utilização na paleoceanografia, havendo discordância tanto na sua classificação como identificação. Estudos genéticos em foraminíferos planctônicos identificaram a presença de mais de uma espécie dentro das espécies aceitas atualmente. Estas espécies possuem diferenças ecológicas entre si, tendo implicações para interpretações paleoceanográficas. A morfometria e isótopos de carbono e oxigênio foram escolhidos como uma alternativa mais acurada e reproduzível para identificação de variações morfológicas e para explorar a ecologia dos indivíduos estudados, respectivamente. Foram utilizadas amostras de sedimento da margem continental brasileira para explorar o potencial da morfometria como ferramenta paleoceanográfica. Foi possível observar a dominância do genótipo pink de Globigerinoides ruber na margem continental brasileira. Para Globigerinoides sacculifer, foi possível identificar comportamentos de migração vertical distintos entre os morfotipos identificados. Em Globorotalia menardii observa-se que as relações morfométricas-ambientais para o grupo todo se mantém quando a análise é feita separadamente em cada morfotipo, confirmando o potencial da correlação direta da morfometria com variáveis ambientais. Já em Globigerinella siphonifera, a diferença morfológica é atribuída a presença de diferentes espécies e não a influências do ambiente sobre a morfologia. / Although taxonomy in planktonic foraminifera has been subject of debates since the beginning of its use in paleoceanography, disagreement in their classification and identification remains. Genetic investigations have identified the presence of more than one species for some of the species accepted nowadays. Hence, these species display ecological differences among them, resulting in implications for paleoceanographic interpretations. Morphometry and carbon and oxygen stable isotopes were chosen as a more precise and reproducible alternative to identify morphological variations and to explore the ecology of the specimens, respectively. Sediment samples from the Brazilian Continental Margin were used to explore morphometry\'s potential as a paleoceanography tool. It was possible to observe the dominance of the pink genotype in Globigerinoides ruber at Brazilian continental margin. For Globigerinoides sacculifer, it was possible to identify distinct vertical migration behaviour in each identified morphotype. In Globorotalia menardii it is possible to observe that the morphometric-enviromental relations for the whole group is maintained when each morphotype is analysed separately, confirming the potential of direct correlations between morphometry and environmental variables. Meanwhile, in Globigerinella siphonifera the morphological difference is attributed to the presence of two different species and not to the influence of the environment on the morphology.

A taxonomia de foraminíferos planctônicos é fonte de discussões desde o início de sua utilização na paleoceanografia, havendo discordância tanto na sua classificação como identificação. Estudos genéticos em foraminíferos planctônicos identificaram a presença de mais de uma espécie dentro das espécies aceitas atualmente. Estas espécies possuem diferenças ecológicas entre si, tendo implicações para interpretações paleoceanográficas. A morfometria e isótopos de carbono e oxigênio foram escolhidos como uma alternativa mais acurada e reproduzível para identificação de variações morfológicas e para explorar a ecologia dos indivíduos estudados, respectivamente. Foram utilizadas amostras de sedimento da margem continental brasileira para explorar o potencial da morfometria como ferramenta paleoceanográfica. Foi possível observar a dominância do genótipo pink de Globigerinoides ruber na margem continental brasileira. Para Globigerinoides sacculifer, foi possível identificar comportamentos de migração vertical distintos entre os morfotipos identificados. Em Globorotalia menardii observa-se que as relações morfométricas-ambientais para o grupo todo se mantém quando a análise é feita separadamente em cada morfotipo, confirmando o potencial da correlação direta da morfometria com variáveis ambientais. Já em Globigerinella siphonifera, a diferença morfológica é atribuída a presença de diferentes espécies e não a influências do ambiente sobre a morfologia. / Although taxonomy in planktonic foraminifera has been subject of debates since the beginning of its use in paleoceanography, disagreement in their classification and identification remains. Genetic investigations have identified the presence of more than one species for some of the species accepted nowadays. Hence, these species display ecological differences among them, resulting in implications for paleoceanographic interpretations. Morphometry and carbon and oxygen stable isotopes were chosen as a more precise and reproducible alternative to identify morphological variations and to explore the ecology of the specimens, respectively. Sediment samples from the Brazilian Continental Margin were used to explore morphometry\'s potential as a paleoceanography tool. It was possible to observe the dominance of the pink genotype in Globigerinoides ruber at Brazilian continental margin. For Globigerinoides sacculifer, it was possible to identify distinct vertical migration behaviour in each identified morphotype. In Globorotalia menardii it is possible to observe that the morphometric-enviromental relations for the whole group is maintained when each morphotype is analysed separately, confirming the potential of direct correlations between morphometry and environmental variables. Meanwhile, in Globigerinella siphonifera the morphological difference is attributed to the presence of two different species and not to the influence of the environment on the morphology.

Este trabalho visou a averiguação do status taxonômico das esponjas bioerosivas do complexo Cliona celata da América do Sul por meio de técnicas moleculares, utilizando como marcadores a subunidade I da Citocromo c oxidase (cox1) e os Espaçadores Internos Transcritos do RNAr nuclear (ITS1 e ITS2), além de testar outros marcadores. Igualmente, avaliou o grau de variabilidade morfológica encontrado nessas espécies, principalmente por meio da morfometria dos tilóstilos, a fim de estabelecer uma diagnose para elas. Ainda, tentou determinar as relações filogenéticas dessas espécies com as demais esponjas bioerosivas utilizando o gene 28S do RNAr nuclear. Foi possível determinar a existência de cinco clados de esponjas bioerosivas do complexo Cliona celata para a América do Sul, e dois outros clados não-sulamericanos, por meio dos marcadores moleculares utilizados. Embora seja discutida a validade desses clados como espécies distintas, continua impossível, por meio de caracteres morfológicos, distingui-los, e dessa forma, a proposição formal de novas espécies é evitada. Através da reconstrução filogenética do grupo, é possível verificar que as esponjas bioerosivas analisadas se apresentaram como um grupo monofilético, e se separa em três principais clados: Pione, Spirastrellidae, e Clionaidae. Por meio desta, é sugerida a alocação das espécies do complexo C. viridis e C. schimidti dentro de Spirastrella, além de ser necessária a criação de um novo gênero para alocar as espécies do novo complexo identificado aqui, o complexo C. delitrix. / This work intended the validation of the taxonomic status of boring sponges from the Cliona celata complex of South America by molecular techniques, using Cytochrome coxidase, subunit I (cox1), and Internal Transcribed Spacers (ITS) of rRNA nuclear genes as molecular markers. Additionally, the degree of morphological variation necessary to establisha correct diagnosis for the studied species was evaluated, and additional markers were tested. Finally, a phylogenetic analysis comparing this species with other boring sponges, using the 28S rRNA nuclear gene was carried out. It was possible to point out the existence of five clades of boring sponges from the C. celata complex in South America, and two more from Mexico and Australia. Although these clades can comprise new valide species, no morphological evidence was found to separate them, and thus, no formal species descriptions were presented. Through out phylogenetic analyses it was possible to conclude that boring sponges form a monophyletic group, which can be separated in three clades: Pione, Spirastrellidae, and Clionaidae. This work suggests to allocate C. viridis and C. schimidti species complexes inside Spirastrella, and to create a new genus for the new C. delitrix species complex.

The upland (Pseudacris feriarum) and midland (P. triseriata) chorus frogs are closely related cryptic species that are best distinguished genetically. The distribution of these species within the Commonwealth of Kentucky has previously been defined by only a handful of genetic samples, making delineation of range limits for each species difficult. Accurate understanding of species distributions, and the genetic structure within them, are vitally important for conservation management of amphibian species. In this study, I have collected genetic samples from across the putative ranges of P. triseriata and P. feriarum in Kentucky and used next-generation sequencing technology to generate more fine-scale estimates of species ranges. The genetic data generated in this study support the delineation of two species in Kentucky, and the species assignments of all individuals and populations are in general concordance with the previously hypothesized species distributions. However, I have identified two previously unrecognized contact zones for these species and revealed areas of hybridization. By delineating species distributions and identifying potentially important regions of genetic admixture, this study will be informative to future conservation management and conservation genetic research of chorus frogs in Kentucky.