The overall goal of this thesis is to examine the newly emerging ideas and practices of spirituality and development. Spirituality and development will be discussed within the broader discourses of alternative development critiques. The issues that arise in the attempts to translate ideas of spirituality and development into practice are examined. The theoretical underpinnings of spirituality and development are analyzed, based on a literature review of spiritual, anti-colonial, post-colonial, feminist, environmental, radical economic, eco-feminist, ecumenical, geographical and anthropological critiques of development. The thesis then explores the discourses of spirituality and development within three Northern donor agencies; the International Development and Research Centre (IDRC), the World Bank and the World Council of Churches (WCC).

Virginity Testing, a traditional Zulu pre-nuptial custom that determines the worth of a bride, has been resurrected in communities in KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa as a response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The practice takes place during large community festivals when young girls have their genitals physically examined to determine whether they are virgins and results are made public. Supporters of the tradition claim that in fostering a value of chastity among its youth, it encourages abstinence from sexual intercourse which leads to a lower HIV infection rate and prevents the disease from spreading. Human rights activists disagree; Rather than slowing the spread of a disease, they argue, the practice instead endangers girls. Those who fail are often shunned and turn to prostitution, while those who pass may be exposed as potential targets for rape (due to a myth that says intercourse with a virgin cures HIV/AIDS). Despite a ban on the practice in 2005, the testing festivals continue, and are described by supporters as an important part of the preservation of Zulu culture. This thesis examines the ways in which human rights may be re-negotiated for young girls in Zulu communities while maintaining a respect for local culture. It moves beyond the traditional debate between relativism and universalism in order to propose solutions to rights violations in culturally diverse contexts by exploring ideas of inclusive human rights and capabilities theories.

Virginity Testing, a traditional Zulu pre-nuptial custom that determines the worth of a bride, has been resurrected in communities in KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa as a response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The practice takes place during large community festivals when young girls have their genitals physically examined to determine whether they are virgins and results are made public. Supporters of the tradition claim that in fostering a value of chastity among its youth, it encourages abstinence from sexual intercourse which leads to a lower HIV infection rate and prevents the disease from spreading. Human rights activists disagree; Rather than slowing the spread of a disease, they argue, the practice instead endangers girls. Those who fail are often shunned and turn to prostitution, while those who pass may be exposed as potential targets for rape (due to a myth that says intercourse with a virgin cures HIV/AIDS). Despite a ban on the practice in 2005, the testing festivals continue, and are described by supporters as an important part of the preservation of Zulu culture. This thesis examines the ways in which human rights may be re-negotiated for young girls in Zulu communities while maintaining a respect for local culture. It moves beyond the traditional debate between relativism and universalism in order to propose solutions to rights violations in culturally diverse contexts by exploring ideas of inclusive human rights and capabilities theories.

I denna uppsats studeras Per Anders Fogelströms historiska roman Mina drömmars stad. Undersökningen har två syften. Det primära syftet är att undersöka hur maskulinitet konstrueras och upprätthålls av de två manliga huvudkaraktärerna. Denna del av undersökningen utgår från R.W. Connells maskulinitetsteori och genomförs med metoden karaktärsanalys. Det sekundära syftet är att undersöka romanens handling och karaktärer utifrån John Stephens kulturrelativistiska perspektiv. Undersökningens resultat visar att de två manliga huvudkaraktärerna eftersträvar att uppnå hegemoniska maskulinitetsideal i olika sociala grupperingar, men att deras framgång i denna strävan skiljer sig, samt att de olika maskuliniteterna samspelar med och påverkar varandra. Utifrån den kulturrelativistiska teorin visar undersökningen att 1950-talets samhälle och värderingar på flera plan avspeglas i karaktärerna och berättelsen som tilldrar sig i Stockholm 1860-1880.

Human Rights: Universality vs. Regionalism Jalal Naji Abstract The basic idea of the existence of certain rights that human beings are entitled to has been present, in some form or another, throughout the history of mankind long before their universal recognition and codification in 1948. The revolutionary work of the United Nations in adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948 was the coronation and completion of all the earlier attempts of mankind in identifying the safeguards of humanity. Of course, the current shape, structure and context of international modern-day human rights never existed on the international sphere before 1948 as all the earlier efforts to identify human rights can be characterized as sporadic, localized, flawed, incomprehensive and even discriminatory as they only recognised certain rights to particular categories of people, such as ascribing rights only for citizens, for believers of a religion, or only for freemen and aristocrats. Conversely, UDHR's human rights standards are ascribed to everyone without discrimination. The foundation of international human rights is premised on the universality concept which indicates that all human beings are equal and that human rights are universally enjoyed by all mankind without discrimination. However, this majestic...

Today a growing number of countries around the world are strengthening their international work for women's rights by pursuing a feminist foreign policy. There is however no internationally accepted definition of feminist foreign policy, and feminism as a concept includes several different orientations. The purpose of this research is thus to examine and compare underlying perspectives that influence European Feminist Foreign Policy, and what this might entail. Based on a qualitative and comparative content analysis, and by using an ideal-type analytical approach as a tool of analysis, this study examines the feminist as well as human rights perspectives which form the basis of three European countries' strategic Foreign Policy documents – France, Spain, and Sweden. This research finds that the foreign policy documents, besides slight differences, are similar in both their feminist and human rights ambitions. Firstly, they all share a focus on an overall liberal feminist ambition that prioritises women's participation and economic empowerment. Secondly, they are characterized by a universalist approach to the pursuit of women's human rights, with limited space for the influence of other perspectives.

Over 200 million women and girls alive today have been victims of Female Geni-tal Mutilation / Cutting, and another 3,6 million are at risk every year. This tradi-tional practice is widespread and has gained a lot of attention from Non-governmental organizations, scholars and medical professionals around the world, stating warnings about the harmful effects. Yet, the prevalence and continuance are still not regressing in a desirable rate. Many countries have enacted legislative actions against the practice, among these countries is the West African nation of The Gambia. The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine and analyse what experiences and perceptions NGOs in The Gambia have with using legislative ac-tion against FGM /C, how their work has changed due to the legislation as well as examine their perception on local community attitudes towards the law. This has been done using the theories of Cultural Relativism vs Universalism and through selected concepts within Hofstede's Theory of Cultural Dimensions. This study will theorise what happens when a law representing western norms and values gets implemented in a society where culture, traditions and the collective group is high-ly important. Our findings show that The Gambia, in particularly local communi-ties, holds a strong cultural relativistic mentality and is characterized by a collec-tivistic culture in which the power distance is high. This society puts emphasis on collective identity, solidarity and collective decisions as well as traditional heritage and cultural values. Implementing a law that promotes western values thus brings problems and a lack of efficiency.

Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka den påstådda universala naturen av mänskliga rättigheter genom att använda mig av debatten kring asiatiska värderingar, som en kulturrelativistisk teori. De grundläggande argumenten som poängteras av försvarare av asiatiska värderingar är att de asiatiska och västerländska stater tillhör olika kulturer som även skiljer i deras uppfattning av etik och moral, vilket påverkar deras olika uppfattning av mänskliga rättigheter. I argumentationsanalysen kring asiatiska värderingar har jag använt mig utav texter från Xiaorong Li, Amartya Sen, Lee Kuan Yew och Mahathir bin Mohamad, då dessa forskare och politiker representerar åsikterna av de två teorierna jag använder mig utav i argumentationsanalysen, universalism och relativism/kulturelativism. Kopplat till denna debatt diskuterar jag även hur ett större konsensus kring internationella mänskliga rättigheter skulle ske, eller ifall det finns en möjlighet för en nedgång av ett internationellt konsensus. Jag har kommit fram till att argumenten från båda sidor i diskussionen presenterade i denna studie har fört fram viktiga åsikter som är av stor betydelse för framtida samarbete mellan stater. I studien framgår det att ett större konsensus (och därför större respekt för mänskliga rättigheter?), kan skapas ifall vi skapar internationella plattformer för diskussion kring kulturella skillnader. Jag har också kommit till slutsatsen att vi förmodligen inte kommer att se en nedgång av konsensusen kring mänskliga rättigheter utan snarare en utveckling av dem. / The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the alleged universal nature of human rights by using the Asian values debate as a cultural relativistic theory. The basic arguments emphasized by defenders of Asian values is that Asian and Western states belong to different cultures that also differ in their perceptions of ethics and morality, which affects their different perceptions of human rights. In my argument analysis on Asian values I have used texts by Xiaorong Li, Amartya Sen, Lee Kuan Yew and Mahathir bin Mohamad. Their opinions regarding the debate will come through in the analysis where they represent two different perspectives on human rights, i.e. universalism and relativism/culture relativism. After the analysis I discuss how an even greater consensus on international human rights would develop and if there is a possibility for a decline of an international consensus.I have come to the conclusion that the arguments from both sides of the spectrum have put forward key arguments in this study that are of great importance for the future cooperation between cultures. The study shows that a greater consensus (and therefore greater respect for human rights?) can be created if we develop an international platform for discussion of cultural differences and I have also come to the conclusion that we probably won’t see a decline of the consensus surrounding human rights but rather a development of them.

In Saudi Arabia women are legal minors who need permission from a male guardian in, among others, matters concerning education, employment and health care. Despite the obvious subordination of women in the country, Saudi Arabia has ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, with a reservation saying that in cases of contradiction between the Convention and Islamic law they do not obligate themselves to follow the rules of the Convention. Respecting the culture, tradition and religion of non-western societies is important in the work with implementing international human rights. However, in the case of Saudi Arabia, it seems like the cultural and religious claims merely function as justification of an institutional oppression of women. This institutional practice of oppression is unique and taken to the extreme, but oppression of women in itself is a global phenomenon, which is not connected to a specific culture.

Female Genital Mutilation is a cultural and historical practice engrained in the African Culture.This practice is part of the African Rite of Passage; where a young girl passes on from being achild into being a grown woman. According to Martha Nussbaums’s Capability Approach thispractice undermines the woman and violates her rights as a human being, on the other handMelville Herskovits’ Cultural Relativist theory encourages acceptance and respect of the variouscultures and their beliefs; thus making female genital mutilation a cultural tradition that shouldbe respected like any other tradition around the world.