Graduation thesis deals with the issue of payroll accounting and related areas - social insurance, health insurance, taxation. On beginnnig it explains discretions and duties employees and employers. It is very important for next wage questions. Basis of thesis is definition and calculation of premium and taxation. There are necessary iformation for calculation of gross wage and net wage. I focus on this area in practical example, where I calculate wage of fictive employee in every months of calendar year. The graduation thesis is ended up with summary of changes in the year 2011 and changes for the next years.

The graduation thesis focuses on wage problems and related areas. The main aim is to define basic principles of payroll accounting and to give a compact view of wage related problems. Individual chapters focus on problems of labour-law relations, remuneration, social and health insurance, income tax and payroll deductions. Each chapter also contains a part with accounting of the problems mentioned; the last chapter contains practical examples of wage calculation according to payroll legislation valid in the year 2010. The thesis concludes with the most important changes in payroll legislation in recent years.

On the 1st of January 2009, a new regulation regarding interest deduction limitations was enforced. The aim was to prevent tax structure with interest deductions in a community of interest. The changes meant that intra-group share transfers, which generates an intra-group loan structure, can lead to borrower losing their right to deduct interest expenses. Except from the main rule two exceptions were also introduced. These eliminates the limitations, and accept the deductibility despite the above conditions. The exceptions are named ten-percent rule and “ventilen”. It was found that Swedish municipal communities also engaged in such arrangements. As a result of this discovery the Swedish Tax Authority was delegated the task to investigate companies that are in a community of interest with a fully or partially exempted taxpayer in general and its relationship to the tax structure of interest deductions in particular. The application of “ventilen” creates problems regarding the definition of business purpose as well as the relationship between business and organizational purposes. The assessment of organizational purposes is of particular importance for municipal communities of interest where transparency, control and quality assurance are of great importance. Needs of rationalization and organizational changes occurs continually within municipal community groups. Unclarity due to organizational purpose makes these changes, within the municipal communities, problematic. Both municipal communities as well as experts regard the deduction limitations due to municipal community interest unclear. Due to the unclarity a few municipal communities have chosen to switch their internal loans to ones through Kommuninvest. This to avoid the rising risk-taking as any interest deductibility limitations may entail. The Swedish High Administrative Court has in their judgements expressed their support for this kind of loan structure. It is unclear how the law concerning “ventilen” should be applied in regards to municipal communities interest, which also raises questions about “ventilens” compatibility with the principle of legality. The High Swedish Administrative Court has solved the problem, at least for now, by approving an alternative approach, the one including Kommuninvest, which thereby reduces the stress for the Court to come to a conclusion regarding “ventilens” proper functioning and application. / Den 1 januari 2009 trädde en ny lagstiftning i kraft gällande ränteavdragsbegränsningar. Syftet var att förhindra skatteupplägg med ränteavdrag inom en intressegemenskap. Förändringarna innebar att koncerninterna andelsöverlåtelser, som genererar en koncernintern upplåning hänförlig till lånet, kan resultera i att låntagaren förlorar sin avdragsrätt för ränteutgifterna. Till huvudregeln infördes två undantag som undanröjer begräsningen, och godtar avdragsrätt trots ovan förutsättningar. Undantagsreglerna betecknas tioprocentsregeln samt ventilen. Syftet med ränteavdragsbegränsningarna är att förhindra skatteupplägg med ränteavdrag inom intressegemenskaper, och då främst inom privata internationella sådana. Det har dock framkommit att även svenska kommunala intressegemenskaper ägnar sig åt dylika upplägg. Med anledning av denna upptäckt fick SKV i uppdrag att utreda bolag som befinner sig i intressegemenskap med helt eller delvis skattebefriade skattesubjekt i allmänhet samt dess relation till skatteupplägg med ränteavdrag i synnerhet. Tillämpningen av ventilen, i förhållande till kommunala intressegemenskaper, genererar problem gällande såväl definitionen av affärsmässigt samt relationen mellan affärsmässiga och organisatoriska skäl. Bedömning kring organisatoriska skäl blir av stor vikt för kommunala intressegemenskaper där insyn, kontrollutövande och kvalitetssäkring är betydelsefullt. Det uppkommer ständigt behov av effektivisering och förändring för att kunna uppnå en acceptabel nivå av kontroll och inblick i bolagen som kommunen äger och förvaltar.  Då rättsläget enligt kommuner och sakkunniga är oklart har flertalet kommunala intressegemenskaper lagt om sina interna lån via Kommuninvest. Det har gjorts för att undvika det ökade riskatagande som en eventuell förlorad ränteavdragsrätt kan komma att innebära. HFD har i praxis uttryckt sitt stöd för denna typ av omläggning. Gällande rätt bör dock anses vara oklar gällande ventilens tillämpning inom kommunala intressegemenskaper, vilket även väcker frågor kring ventilens kompatibilitet med legalitetsprincipen. HFD kan dock ha ansetts finna en, om än en provisorisk sådan, lösning på problematiken genom att godkänna en omläggning till Kommuninvest som därmed minskar stressen för HFD att komma till en slutsats gällande ventilens korrekta tolkning och tillämpning.

OPSOMMING Gebeurlikhede kan omskryf word as onsekere omstandighede van positiewe of negatiewe aard wat, onafhanklik van die verweerder se optrede en indien dit sou realiseer, waarskynlik 'n persoon se gesondheid, inkomste, verdienvermoë, lewenskwaliteit, lewensverwagting of onderhoudsafhanklikheid in die toekoms kan beïnvloed of in die verlede kon beïnvloed het en wat gevolglik op billike en realistiese wyse in ag geneem moet word ter bepaling van die skadevergoedingsbedrag. Die skadevergoedingsbedrag kan vanweë gebeurlikhede verminder of vermeerder word waar die eiser wel met `n oorwig van waarskynlikheid die volle omvang van die skade bewys het, maar die hof nie kon oortuig dat geen ander oorsaak die skade waarskynlik ook sou kon veroorsaak nie (sg "gebeurlikheids-aanpassings"). In gevalle waar die eiser nie die volle omvang van die skade op `n oorwig van waarskynlikheid kon bewys nie, kan die hof nogtans `n verminderde bedrag toeken op grond van die gebeurlikheid dat die skade wel waarskynlik in die toekoms kan realiseer (sg "gebeurlikheidstoekennings"). Die eiser moet getuienis voorlê van gebeurlikhede wat die skadevergoedingsbedrag sal verhoog, en die verweerder van gebeurlikhede wat die skadevergoedingsbedrag sal verlaag. Die waarskynlikheid dat die gebeurlikheid sal realiseer, moet deur die hof aan die hand van objektiewe maatstawwe en op grond van feitelike bewerings en logiese afleidings uit deskundige en ander getuienis in die vorm van `n waarskynlikheidsgraad van tussen vyf persent en tagtig persent uitgedruk word. Hipotetiese kousaliteit word deur die hof aangewend om gebeurlikhede op `n billike wyse in ag te neem en verwys na die kousale ketting van hipotetiese feite wat waarskynlik sou gerealiseer het indien die skadestigtende gebeurtenis nie plaasgevind het nie. Gebeurlikhede kan in twee kategorieë geklassifiseer word: Algemene gebeurlikhede wat gewoonlik in enige stadium by alle persone kan voorkom (bv vroeë dood, siekte ens) en spesifieke gebeurlikhede wat gewoonlik op spesifieke tydstippe by spesifieke individue kan voorkom (bv hertroue, egskeiding ens). Terwyl die hof geregtelik kennis behoort te kan neem van die invloed van algemene gebeurlikhede, behoort die hof hoofsaaklik op grond van ondersteunende getuienis van die invloed van spesifieke gebeurlikhede oortuig te word. Algemene gebeurlikheidsaanpassings is gewoonlik relatief laag (gemiddeld tien persent), terwyl gebeurlikheidsaanpassings vir spesifieke gebeurlikhede fluktueer (gewoonlik tussen vyf persent en vyftig persent), afhangende van die getuienis en omstandighede van die eiser. Gebeurlikheidstoekennings is gewoonlik laer as vyftig persent. SUMMARY Contingencies can be described as uncertain circumstances of a positive or negative nature which, independent of the defendant's conduct and if it should realise, would probably influence a person's health, income, earning capacity, quality of life, life expectancy or dependency on support in future or could have done so in the past, and which must consequently be taken into account in a fair and realistic manner in the quantification of damages. Contingencies can be used to increase or reduce damages in circumstances where the plaintiff succeeded in proving the full loss on a preponderance of probability, but could not convince the court that there was no probability that any other cause could also have given rise to the loss (so-called "contingency adjustments"). In circumstances where the plaintiff could not prove the full loss on a preponderance of probability, the court can nevertheless award a reduced amount on the basis of the contingency that loss could probably realise in future (so-called "contingency allowances"). The plaintiff must adduce evidence of contingencies that can increase damages, and the defendant of contingencies that can reduce damages. The degree of probability that the contingency will realise, must be expressed by the court as a percentage of between five percent and eighty percent, in view of objective measures and on the basis of factual allegations and logical deductions derived from expert and other evidence. Hypothetical causation assists the court in taking account of contingencies in a fair manner and refers to the causal link of hypothetical events which would probably have realised if the damage-causing event did not occur. Contingencies can be classified into two categories: General contingencies that usually can be present in the lives of all people at any point in time (eg early death, sickness, etc) and specific contingencies that usually are present in the lives of specific individuals at specific times (eg remarriage, divorce, etc). While the court should be able to take legal notice of the influence of general contingencies, the court should be convinced of the influence of specific contingencies primarily on the basis of supporting evidence. General contingency adjustments are usually relatively low (on average ten per cent), while contingency adjustments for specific contingencies fluctuate (usually between five per cent and fifty per cent), depending on the evidence and circumstances of the plaintiff. Contingency allowances are usually lower than fifty per cent. / Jurisprudence / LL.D

Many South Africans may not have adequate retirement savings when they retire and this has the effect of a low income replacement ratio on retirement that may lead to a decrease in the standard of living of the retiree and in extreme cases the retiree becoming dependent on their family and the government. Owing to this trend of no or inadequate retirement savings, South Africa embarked on a retirement reform journey in 2004. The goal of this research is to determine whether the retirement reform mechanisms outlined by National Treasury would encourage individual retirement savings that should assist South Africans to achieve stability of income in their retirement. This research analysed the current retirement savings options and vehicles available for South Africans, the current tax incentives and disincentives and reviewed the proposed changes to tax incentives and disincentives during the accumulation phase of retirement savings and explained how these proposed tax incentives are harmonised for the accumulation phase of retirement. The research explained how National Treasury aims to limit pre-retirement withdrawals and how it intends to encourage the annuitisation of post-retirement benefits. The penultimate chapter of this research measured the effect (by making certain assumptions) of the changes proposed by National Treasury on the income replacement ratio of the retiree. Throughout the research comparisons were made between The OECD Roadmap for the good design of defined contribution pension plans and National Treasury’s proposals. This research did not directly address the effect of increased life expectancies on retirement savings or increases in youth unemployment and the effect that this may have on retirement savings. The effect of financial charges levied on retirement savings on the income replacement ratio of a retiree was also not explored. Furthermore, not all pension funds are regulated by the Pension Funds Act and how these pension funds can be brought within the purview of the Pension Funds Act was not investigated. Automatic enrolment of retirement savings for all employees in South Africa in retirement vehicles is a further research area that could be addressed.

The graduation theses is focused on wage problems and related areas in the private sector and contains summary of informations necessary to right pay accounting. With respect to tax and social insurance reforms in last years the main aim of this theses is to compare the impact of changes on pay accounting in years 2007 -- 2009. Problems of social and health insurance and taxes are mentioned in regularizations valid in these years. In every chapter are added examples concerning these problems. These examples allow year-on-year comparison. The graduation theses contains within mentioned problems also other problems: payroll deductions, mileage, refundof wages and benefits as other form of remuneration of employees. Also in these chapters are given examples for best understanding and clarity. Each chapter contains also accounting of mentioned problems in double-entry accounting. The graduation theses is ended up with complex example which compares height of net earnings in years 2007 -- 2009.

The Master´s thesis discourse on the problem of value added tax in allowance organizations. The bases of the thesis are legislative sources related to the issues, primarily Act No. 235/2004 Coll., on value added tax. The practical part of the Master´s thesis concerns the particular allowance organisation named Lipka – school facility for environmental education. The thesis intended to be a guidance document on application of the value added tax act.

This study presents an overview of the medical expenditure allowed to taxpayers in the South African Income Tax Act, 58 of 1962 (hereafter the “Income Tax Act”). The study traces the changes made to the allowed expenditure over time. Changes made to the Income Tax Act, illustrating the effect of qualifying medical expenses on the income of persons with disabilities in terms of the Income Tax Act, are described. Certain provisions of the Income Tax Act, as well as other legislation dealing with persons with disabilities, were analysed. Furthermore, the research shows the effect of moderate to severe limitations on a person’s ability to claim qualifying medical expenses. In particular, the change over from the medical tax deduction system (section 18 of the Income Tax Act) to the medical tax rebate system (sections 6A and 6B of the Income Tax Act) to redress the inequality between high income and low income earners, was analysed. Case studies were used to illustrate that the medical tax deduction system (section 18 of the Income Tax Act) favoured high income earners over low income earners. Finally, the change over from the medical tax deductions (section 18 of the Income Tax Act) system to the current system of medical tax rebates (sections 6A and 6B of the Income Tax Act) was analysed. Except for a very small group of taxpayers, the medical tax rebate system (sections 6A and 6B of the Income Tax Act) was found to be financially more favourable to all taxpayers. / Taxation / M. Compt. (Taxation)