Introduction: Depression is one of the most dominant universal mental health disorders and has a high rate of persistency and recurrence. Interpersonal theories posit that it is interpersonal, or relational, factors that serve to cause and maintain depression, which is supported by a growing evidence base. CBASP is an interpersonally-focused psychotherapy specifically designed for the treatment of chronic depression and employs a variety of cognitive, behavioural and interpersonal techniques within the therapeutic relationship to help individuals evaluate their interpersonal exchanges and consider the implications. Research has highlighted the effectiveness of CBASP for this client group, however there is limited research investigating therapist and client factors that contribute to positive outcomes. Attachment style and mentalization are two such factors that are theoretically and empirically linked to an individual’s way of relating to others but have not been investigated in relation to outcomes in CBASP. Aims: A systematic review aimed to identify and evaluate significant social and interpersonal mediators that account for the relationship between attachment style and depressive symptoms. An empirical study then explored the role of therapist and client attachment style, mentalisation, and therapeutic alliance on clinical outcomes in CBASP. Methods: A systematic search of the literature exploring social and interpersonal mediators between attachment style and depressive symptoms was conducted in order to identify and evaluate mediators. The empirical study used a longitudinal case series design where both therapist and client attachment style, mentalization and the therapeutic alliance were assessed, and clinical outcomes were measured at each session to allow evaluation of change over time. Results: The systematic review provided evidence that specific social and interpersonal variables mediate the relationship between attachment and depressive symptoms, specifically social support, social anxiety, social self-efficacy, relationship satisfaction, interpersonal negative events, and interpersonal dependency. Two studies failed to find mediating effects of social support and social self-efficacy. The findings of this review are interpreted with caution as there contained several methodological limitations that affect the ability to generalize to other populations and infer causation. Findings from the empirical study provided evidence for the role of therapist attachment style and mentalization in relation to the therapeutic alliance and clinical outcomes in chronic depression in CBASP. Client attachment style and mentalization were not found to have a significant impact on the process of change but did account for some variance in symptoms of depression. Findings should be cautioned due to the small sample size and lack of statistical power to detect smaller effects. Discussion: The findings of this thesis suggests that there exist social and interpersonal factors that mediate the relationship between attachment style and depressive symptoms, and this has clear socio-political and clinical implications. However more research using robust methods of design and statistical analysis are needed in order to provide clarity in this field. The empirical study provided rich and novel data that suggests that therapist attachment style and mentalization, more so than client factors, are important in developing the therapeutic alliance and promoting symptom reduction over the course of treatment. Further research utilizing a larger sample size could provide more robust evidence for this association.

This study explored the relationships that the personality variables of sociotropy and solitude, social support and friendship quality have with levels of depression in older adolescents and young adults. The participants self-identified as Black/African American or White/European American/Caucasian and were between the ages of 18 and 20. The examination indicated that when all variables were taken into account, sociotropy and solitude were the only variables significantly related to levels of depression. Implications for future research are discussed.

Thesis (M.A.) / It is well known obesity rates have climbed steadily since the 1960s. The result is an increasing burden on healthcare in the world and especially, the United States. Those costs are not simply financial, but obesity, defined as a chronic disease of excess fat, has many comorbid diseases associated with it, along with decreased productivity and happiness. Trends in depression of the past few decades mirror those of obesity, as depression is more prevalent than ever. Likewise, depression places a heavy burden on the healthcare infrastructure. Many different researchers have sought a link between these two chronic diseases, and it is the goal of this paper to review this evidence. Investigators have framed the potential relationship in many different ways, including a sociological argument, with either obesity or depression predisposing the other, being elements in a shared inflammatory pathway, CNS pathway, HPA axis, and serotonin pathway. More studies are needed to conclude there is a definitive link between obesity and depression, but because of the massive toll both conditions take on the individual and society, it is well worth the investment. Perhaps, the success of obesity treatments that address depression, diminished self-worth and self-esteem provide some promise, and they also provide a new avenue to study this relationship. In identifying the comprehensive approaches to obesity that are most effective, researchers may be able to work backwards, identifying all the elements being touch upon by the treatment. / 2031-01-01

Depression received much attention in the professional literature as a stimulus both for experimental as well as applied research. It continued to be the subject of much controversy in respect to its definition, identification, and classification. Attempts were made to objectify the assessment of depression using self-report scales to tap various aspects though to be related to its etiology as well as its symptomology. Two of the most popular and reportedly well-validated self-report scales identified in the literature for determining and quantifying depressive symptoms were the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck) and the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (Zung).The present study was designed to determine if there were factors in common between the Beck and the Zung scales and, in addition, to test whether these factors would differentiate subjects by sex class membership, diagnostic category, and by some linear combination of biographical or life-history information. The major purpose was the identification of outstanding charactersitics of depression predicted from biographical data and the determination of the relationship of these data to self-rating psychometric measures of depression. This study makes it clear that the Beck and Zung scales are measuring different aspects of depression and thus are likely based on separate constructs. The need of developing a depression index based on separate factor scores is highlighted. Also, a multimodal approach to assessment in general is indicated. Studies relating biographical information to factors of depression are suggested. This study makes several inroads, generating descriptive factors and significant biographical or life history correlates. These findings could be expanded and further research could lead to the development of assessment tools useful in the identification of patients with distinct depressive syndromes, as well as at-risk subject groups, in order to implement both primary and secondary prevention.

Inaugural lecture delivered at Rhodes University. / Rhodes University Libraries (Digitisation)

Intellectual Disability (ID) is a condition in which day-to-day cognitive, intellectual and adaptive functioning is negatively affected including poor performance in memory tests in human subjects. Patients with comorbid anxiety and depression demonstrated adverse memory when subject to a verbal learning test. Abnormal mutation in the human deaf1 gene has been previously reported to be associated with ID. Previous behavioral studies in mice with a brain specific conditional neuronal knock outs (NKO) of deaf 1 gene exhibited memory deficit and anxiety-like behavior. These deaf 1 NKO mice represent a convenient model for the study of the effects of ID on both in vivo and in vitro memory tests. Earlier studies in these deaf 1 NKOs have shown increased levels of anxiety in the Elevated Plus Maze and Open Field - Test along with contextual-memory deficits in Fear-conditioning experiments. In the intact animal, behavioral phenotyping experiments in mice such as Fear conditioning including contextual and cued fear conditioning measures the ability of the animal to learn, remember and associate an aversive experience to environmental cues. Studies in rodent brain slices involving Long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) have long been associated to reflect substrates for memory formation and memory loss respectively. While early-LTP (ELTP) typically lasts between 30-60 minutes, late-LTP (LLTP) lasts for hours; though there is much disagreement about the time courses. In vitro LTD was first reported in 1978 and since then has been studied in details. NMDA receptor (NMDAR) and metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGLUR) activation has been implicated in induction of both LTP and LTD among others. The CA1 region of the rodent hippocampus is the most widely explored area for LTP studies especially stratum radiatum (SR). In addition to the commissural fibers, SR receives Schaffer-collaterals (SC) and is an integral part of memory formation. Previous studies have reported that the CA1 region of the hippocampus expresses both NMDAR-LTD and mGluR-LTD. In the present study, we aim to establish whether these mice might show altered hippocampal Long-term Potentiation (LTP) and/or Long-term Depression (LTD) when brain slices from deaf1 NKO mice were subject to electrophysiological studies and if so, whether pharmacological interventions had any effect on it. Using electrophysiological techniques, hippocampal slices from DEAF1 KO mice were tested for possible alterations in LTP when compared to age-matched controls. Both early and late forms of LTP were examined, since these two types of LTP are medicated through different biochemical mechanisms. ELTP was unaltered in the NKO animals compared to their WT littermates. This experiment was followed by investigating LLTP. The control animals, as expected, exhibited a large LTP. The DEAF1 animals, in contrast, showed a paradoxical response to LLTP stimulation. Instead of the increase in response as observed in the control animals, slices from DEAF1 mice decreased to about 80% of baseline at 30 mins post train. This depression (LTD) became greater throughout the 3 hours of post-train recording, at the end of which the responses were approximately 25% of baseline. The mechanisms of this LTD were then explored with focus on glutamate receptors. Based upon existing knowledge in the literature, the possible roles of both NMDA receptors and mGlu receptors (mGluR1 and mGluR5) were explored. Treatment with D-AP5 - a selective NMDAR antagonist on slices from control animals showed no effect on the baseline evoked responses, but LLTP was blocked following D - AP5 treatment. In slices from DEAF1 NKO animals, AP5 did not affect the baseline evoked responses, but it reversed the expected LTD to a robust LLTP. Next, the involvement of mGlu receptors, known to play a role in LTD, was tested. In controls, there was once again no effect on baseline activity but LLTP at both 30 mins and 180 mins P.T was significantly enhanced as compared to aCSF-only treated slices. In slices from DEAF1 mice, similar to the AP5 study, LY367385 did not affect the baseline response, but reversed LTD to LLTP. Following this, the effect of 40 µM MPEP (an mGluR5 antagonist) was tested, and produced similar results. Thus, three receptor antagonists known to impair the expression of LTD in wild-type animals not only prevented its appearance, but lead to a robust enhancement of the response in DEAF1 hippocampus. Further exploration of the mechanics of altered LTP was undertaken by using Synaptic Tagging and Capture (STC) in combination with pharmacology. Results of the STC experiments suggest that there could be a differential effect of plasticity-inducing stimulation on downstream protein targets. Finally, whole-cell patch recordings were performed to examine the biophysical characteristics of individual CA1 pyramidal neurons. Taken together, the results suggest that multiple mechanisms may be involved in the generation and expression of LTD in the DEAF1 mice.

A substantial body of literature suggests that depression influences how individuals communicate. Much of this work utilizes cognitive frameworks to explain observed differences in language of those with increased depression, as language is traditionally viewed as a cognitive process. Although cognitive models somewhat explain these observed patterns in language, an increasing amount of literature also recognizes the interconnectivity between cognition and affect. Currently, no studies examine the impact of affect on language. Thus, the current study sought to address this gap in the literature by explaining changes in language using both cognitive and affective frameworks through an examination of the influence of depression and temporary affective state on language. As in previous studies, analysis of linguistic samples from 136 adults demonstrated that depression predicted specific linguistic trends; specifically, depression positively correlated with self- and shared-identity focus. The present study took this a step further by demonstrating that induction of temporary affective states also caused changes in linguistic style, with a negative affective induction group showing more self-focus language whereas those induced with positive affect demonstrated decreased negative emotion language. I end the thesis with a discussion of the importance of the current findings, as they suggest depressed mood may be an explanatory factor in the linguistic patterns of depressed individuals

No description available.

Recreational screen time activities (e.g., computer use, television viewing, and videogame engagement) have become increasingly embedded in modern day culture, posing both physical and psychological health consequences (Babic et al., 2017; Goldfield et al., 2013). Despite the established link between recreational screen time and adolescent depressive symptomatology, little is known about mechanisms that may explain or influence this relationship. The overarching objective of the present dissertation, which includes two separate studies, was to examine cognitive, behavioural, affective, and interpersonal factors associated with the relationship between adolescents’ total daily recreational screen time activities and depressive symptomatology over time. The dissertation includes archival data from the Research on Eating and Adolescent Lifestyle (REAL) Study, which examined a large sample of students from the National Capital Region of Canada. Both Study 1 and Study 2 examined a subsample of these students. Given that exposure to screen time occupies up to 10 hours of Canadian children and adolescents’ waking hours (Active Healthy Kids Canada, 2013; Leatherdale & Ahmed, 2011; Leatherdale & Harvey, 2015), the independent variable examined in the model was total daily recreational screen time activities. Because trajectories of depressive symptomatology typically increase during adolescence (Duchesne & Ratelle, 2014), the dependent variable examined in the model was depressive symptomatology. The time points spanned over 7 years. The purpose of Study 1 was to test a prospective longitudinal path analysis model. The model examined the relationship between total daily recreational screen time at baseline (T0) and depressive symptomatology at Time 4 (T4), with body image and disordered eating behaviours at Time 2 (T2) as potential mediating variables. The final sample included 304 English-speaking students (194 females, Mage = 13.40 years, SD = 1.10). Total daily recreational screen time at T0 was significantly predictive of depressive symptomatology at T4. Appearance (dis)satisfaction at T2 mediated the relationship between total daily recreational screen time at T0 and depressive symptomatology at T4. Total daily recreational screen time at T0 was significantly predictive of emotional eating and decreased body image satisfaction at T2. Restrained eating and appearance satisfaction were negatively associated with depressive symptomatology at T4. Results were independent of age and depressive symptomatology at T0. The purpose of Study 2 was to test a longitudinal moderation model including total daily recreational screen time at T0 and depressive symptomatology at T4, with attachment style, coping style, and perceived social support at T0 as potential moderating variables. The final sample included 170 English-speaking students (106 females; Mage = 13.01, SD = 0.96). Contrary to expectation, attachment style, coping style, and perceived social support did not moderate the relationship between total daily recreational screen time at T0 and depressive symptomatology at T4. However, insecure attachment was identified as a risk factor for depressive symptomatology among males. A trend emerged in that avoidance-oriented coping appeared to be a risk factor for depressive symptomatology among females and a protective factor for males. There was also a three-way interaction between total daily recreational screen time, gender, and perceived social support. That is, when perceived social support was high, higher levels of total daily recreational screen time at T0 was associated with higher levels of depressive symptomatology at T4 for both males and females, but the relationship was significant for males only. Findings from the present dissertation offer important theoretical, methodological, and clinical implications.

A consistent feature of clinical depression emphasised in several theories is a pessimistic view of one's personal future. The literature divides future cognitions into positive versus negative with reduced positive future cognitions linked to depression and suicidal ideation. This reduction in future cognitions has been linked to impaired autobiographical memory and emotional avoidance. Specifically, a lack of willingness to access personal past experiences influences future cognitions and subsequently future behaviour. Attempted avoidance of painful past events can generalise to reduced contact with all past experiences, positive and negative. The current thesis had three main aims. First, it aimed to determine the differences, or as the emerging literature suggests, the similarities, in thinking about the future and the past in sub clinically depressed versus non-depressed individuals. Implicit future cognitions and past experiences were related to emotional avoidance in a sub clinical sample. The second aim of the current work was to offer an alternative to the use of self report measures in the future and past thinking literature. To that end, a robust and accurate implicit measure of positive future expectations in depression was tested in a sub clinical sample. This implicit methodology proved a better indicator of depression and hopelessness when compared to widely used explicit methodologies. Finally, the thesis aimed to provide analogue evidence of techniques for the remediation of pessimistic thinking as is characteristic in depression, namely mindfulness and values clarification. Mindfulness and values clarification were demonstrated to be useful techniques in the remediation of pessimistic cognitions with increased acceptance of re- or pre-living personally relevant negative experiences allowing for greater psychological flexibility. Taken together the experimental series reported herein suggests that implicit positive cognitions about the past and future are related to sub clinical depression. Additionally, mindfulness- and values-based skills can moderate the link between past and future cognitions and sub clinical depression.