Orientadores: Paulo Ademar Martins Leal, Antonio Carlos de Oliveira Ferraz / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Agrícola / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-21T10:17:09Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Souza_FrancianeColares_D.pdf: 2902759 bytes, checksum: 9132390d28bc3d61c99fb9c0a0385692 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: O manejo inadequado é um fatores que afetam a qualidade de produtos agrícolas, conduzindo a perdas devido aos danos mecânicos e o desenvolvimento microbiano, agravado pelo armazenamento inadequado. No caso do figo, devido à limitada proteção oferecida pela epiderme e presença do ostíolo, o beneficiamento utilizando água não é recomendado, trazendo em pauta ações capazes de promover a desinfecção superficial sem afetar a qualidade do produto. Dentre os métodos físicos mais promissores para conservação de frutas estão a refrigeração, radiação ultravioleta (UV-C) e atmosfera modificada. Por outro lado, a utilização de métodos combinados apresenta vantagens devido sua ação sinérgica e complementar. Neste sentido, acredita-se que o uso combinado de métodos físicos pode trazer benefícios para a conservação de figos, principalmente voltada para o mercado externo, auxiliando na manutenção da qualidade do produto e redução da carga microbiana. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o desempenho da combinação dos tratamentos de atmosfera modificada passiva, atmosfera enriquecida com 100% de CO2 e radiação UV-C na conservação do figo 'Roxo de Valinhos'. As principais etapas foram as seguintes: (1) isolamento dos fungos causadores de podridao em figos 'Roxo de Valinhos' e teste de patogenicidade, utilizando métodos de inoculação de deposição de suspensão de esporos na epiderme do figo, com e sem perfuração, e com deposição sobre papel filtro, avaliando-se a incidência e a severidade dos patógenos com cálculo do Índice de Doença (ID); (2) identificação do nível de tolerância do figo à exposição da radiação UV-C de 0,00 kJ.m-2; 0,70 kJ.m-2; 1,32 kJ.m-2; 2,64 kJ.m-2 e 4,00 kJ.m-2, armazenados à 10°C e 20°C, utilizando como parâmetro de qualidade a aparência visual; (3) avaliação do efeito da radiação UV-C no crescimento in vitro e in vivo dos fungos Rhizopus stolonifer, Lasiodiplodia theobromae e Alternaria alternata, utilizando-se valores de energia de radiação iguais a 0,00 kJ.m-2; 2,64 kJ.m-2; 4,00 kJ.m-2; 8,00 kJ.m-2 e 16,00 kJ.m-2 para os ensaios in vitro e iguais a 0,00 kJ.m-2; 0,70 kJ.m-2; 1,32 kJ.m-2 e 2,64 kJ.m-2 para os ensaios in vivo, a 10ºC e 20ºC; (4) avaliação de desempenho do filme de polipropileno (PP) com espessuras de 25'mi'm, 30'mi'm e 50'mi'm na manutenção da qualidade de figos, avaliada pelos parâmetros perda de massa (PM), sólidos solúveis (SS), acidez titulável (AT), aparência visual e redução da incidência de podridão; (5) avaliação do efeito de atmosfera com 100% de CO2 por 4h, 8h e 12h, à 10ºC e 20ºC, na manutenção da qualidade e diminuição da carga microbiana no figo, avaliada pelos índices PM, SS, AT e aparência visual e (6) combinação do filme de PP de 30'mi'm com radiação UV-C de 1,32 kJ.m-2 e com a exposição à atmosfera com 100% de CO2 durante 4h. Os resultados evidenciaram que a utilização isolada do filme de PP de 30'mi'm, radiação UV-C e exposição à 100% de CO2 mostrou-se eficiente na manutenção da qualidade das frutas, sobretudo quando se utiliza o armazenamento refrigerado. O uso combinado do filme de PP de 30'mi'm com atmosfera modificada com 100% de CO2, representa uma alternativa para o armazenamento do figo, mesmo quando não se utiliza refrigeração, em função da redução da carga microbiana e manutenção da qualidade / Abstract: The main factor affecting quality of agricultural products is the inadequate management, leading to considerable losses due to mechanical damage and fungal contamination, aggravated by improper storage. The fig vulnerability is amplified due to the presence of the ostiole, a peculiar fig orifice, acting as an open door to contamination. Since aqueous sanitization is not recomended, other methods should be searched to promote surface sanitization without affecting the quality of the product. Some promising methods are cooling, ultraviolet radiation (UV-C) and modified atmosphere. A combined method also has advantages because of their synergistic effect on inhibiting microbial growth, and thus maintaining the nutritional and visual qualities of the product. Moreover, the combined use of physical methods, to improve the fig shelf life, potentially can increase business opportunities, specially in the international market. The main objective of this work was to evaluate the performance of the combination of modified atmosphere and UV-C radiation on 'Roxo de Valinhos' fig conservation. To attain this general goal several intermediate steps were performed: (1) fungi rot identification and associated pathogenicity using inoculation by deposition on filter paper to evaluate disease incidence and contamination severity; (2) UV-C radiation fig tolerance identification using energy levels of 0,00 kJ.m-2; 0,70 kJ.m-2; 1,32 kJ.m-2; 2,64 kJ.m-2 and 4,00 kJ.m-2, followed by storage at 10ºC and 20ºC; (3) evaluation of the effect of UV-C radiation on Rhizopus stolonifer, Lasiodiplodia theobromae and Alternaria alternata fungi growth, for in vitro and in vivo tests, using energy irradiation of 0,00 kJ.m-2; 2,64 kJ.m-2; 4,00 kJ.m-2; 8,00 kJ.m-2 and 16,00 kJ.m-2 for the in vitro test, and 0,00 kJ.m-2; 0,70 kJ.m-2; 1,32 kJ.m-2 e 2,64 kJ.m-2 for the in vivo test, at 10ºC and 20ºC; (4) evaluation of the polypropylene (PP) in maintaining the quality, using film thicknesses of 25'mi'm, 30'mi'm and 50'mi'm; (5) evaluation of the fig exposition to 100% CO2 modified atmosphere for 4h, 8h and 12h, followed by storage at 10ºC and 20ºC, in maintaining quality and keeping the microbiological load low and (6) evaluation of the combined use of 30'mi'm PP film with UV-C irradiation of 1,32 kJ.m-2 and 100% CO2 modified atmosphere during 4h. Results have shown that the use of the 30'mi'm PP film, radiation UV-C of 1,32 kJ.m-2 and exposition to 100% of CO2 for 4h was effective in maintaining the quality of the fruits, specially when refrigerated storage is employed. It was concluded that combined use of the 30'mi'm PP film with high CO2 concentration represents an alternative to non refrigerated fig storage, due to the reduction of the microbial load / Doutorado / Tecnologia Pós-Colheita / Doutora em Engenharia Agrícola

Ph.D. (Agriculture)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / The rind physiological disorders incidence such as rind pitting is a challenge to the citrus industry as it affects appearance; and ultimately, acceptability and purchase in both local and international markets. Although the internal quality is not directly affected by rind pitting, fruit damaged by this disorder are rejected in the fresh fruit market. The susceptibility to this disorder varies among citrus fruit cultivars. Other factors impacting rind physiological disorders include; pre-harvest environmental conditions and postharvest storage conditions. However, the main cause of this disorder is still unknown. In South Africa, ‘Benny’ valencias are the most prone orange cultivars to rind pitting disorder within the sweet-orange-type. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate production site and postharvest treatments’ effect on physico-chemical, biochemical properties, antioxidants, rind soluble sugars and gene expression in relation to rind pitting development of ‘Benny’ valencia citrus fruit. During 2016 and 2017 seasons, the study was conducted, whereby, ‘Benny’ valencia citrus fruit were harvested from Tzaneen, Groblersdal and Musina in South Africa. After harvesting, the fruits were transported to the Agricultural Research Council- Tropical and Subtropical Crops (ARC-TSC) postharvest laboratory in Nelspruit for sorting, grading treatment, cold storage and post-storage quality evaluation. After sorting and grading, fruits were subjected to the following treatments: T1 = no wax plus dehydration, T2 = wax plus dehydration and T3 = wax plus no dehydration. Dehydrated treatments were applied for 3 days at relative humidity of ±45%, thereafter, fruit were stored at -0.6 and 4.5°C for 28 days plus 7 days shelf-life. After removal from cold storage plus 7 days shelf-life, fruit were analysed for rind pitting incidence (RPI), weight loss percentage (WL), firmness, total electrolyte leakage (TEL), total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA) and TSS: TA ratio. xxvi Afterwards, fruit were peeled to remove flavedo, thereafter; the flavedo peels were freeze-dried, milled and stored at -21°C for further physiological analysis. Freeze dried flavedo peel was analysed for total flavonoids, total phenolics, vitamin C, soluble sugars (glucose, fructose and sucrose), antioxidant assays (FRAP, DPPH, ABST and ORAC) and genes. The results showed that rind pitting incidence was high on fruit subjected to wax plus no dehydration across all storage temperatures and production sites. Furthermore, results showed that fruit harvested from Musina exposed to T1 had higher incidence of rind pitting than those from Groblersdal and Tzaneen, irrespective of storage temperature. Meanwhile, fruit harvested from Musina had the highest TEL when compared with Groblersdal and Tzaneen irrespective of treatments and storage temperatures. A significantly higher (P<0.05) WL was observed in Musina fruit harvested from Tzaneen exposed to T3 at both storage temperatures. Moreover, increased TSS was observed after storage across all production site and postharvest treatments. The study showed that production site and postharvest treatments had a significant influence on rind pitting and total electrolyte leakage. Additionally, fruit treated with no wax + dehydration was found to be more susceptible to rind pitting. However, fruit sourced from Tzaneen had significantly (P<0.0001) high TPC and TFC, irrespective of postharvest treatments therefore, low rind pitting incidence. While rind vitamin C was higher in fruit from Groblersdal when compared with Tzaneen and Musina. However, low RPI was also observed in fruit sourced from Groblersdal. Fruit from Musina subjected to wax plus dehydration had higher RSA and low RPI at both temperatures when compared with fruit sourced from Groblersdal and Tzaneen. Therefore, wax plus dehydration resulted in low rind pitting with an increased accumulation of rind biochemical concentrations, xxvii irrespective of cold storage temperatures. These results suggested that there is a link between rind pitting and rind biochemical concentrations in the ‘Benny’ valencia citrus fruit. Moreover, fruit from Musina subjected to wax plus dehydration had higher antioxidant measured by DPPH and low RPI at both low storage temperatures when compared with fruit harvested from Groblersdal and Tzaneen. Furthermore, fruit harvested from Musina and treated with no wax plus dehydration, thereafter, stored at -0.6°C had low RPI with high antioxidant activity measured by FRAP than Tzaneen and Groblersdal regions in both seasons. With respect to sugars, fructose was not significantly (P<0.05) affected by production sites, postharvest treatments and cold storage temperature, hence, the low pitting incidence. The highest glucose was observed in fruit harvested from Groblersdal, irrespective of treatments and cold storage temperatures when compared with those from Tzaneen and Musina, low RPI was also observed in fruit harvested from Groblersdal. However, fruit harvested from Groblersdal treated with wax plus dehydration and stored at 4.5°C had higher sucrose and low RPI when compared with Tzaneen and Musina. Moreover, this study suggested that soluble sugars in ‘Benny’ valencia flavedo during cold storage is involved in rind pitting tolerance mediated by wax plus dehydration treatment. Three homologic genes: CsCP gene; CsNAC-domain protein gene; CsCP-F gene; were chosen to examine the relationship between their expression and citrus rind pitting through quantitative RT-PCR analysis in pitting and no-pitting fruits. Results showed that the expression of CsCP, CsNAC and CsCP-F genes were all higher in the pitting rind fruit harvested from Tzaneen and low in fruit with low pitting. Groblersdal and Musina fruit had low expression of genes and low rind pitting was observed. Therefore, findings suggested that CsCP, CsNAC and CsCP-F genes may xxviii be linked to non-chilling rind pitting and could serve as targets for future investigation. Generally, the overall results obtained in this study provided an understanding into the previous unknown complexities of citrus non-chilling rind pitting. Moreover, the study revealed that the studied factors had an influence on non-chilling rind pitting and physico-chemical properties of ‘Benny’ valencia citrus fruit. In addition, postharvest treatments resulted in low non-chilling rind pitting with an increased accumulation of rind biochemical concentrations. The fruit with high antioxidant capacity were found to be tolerant to rind pitting, whereas, fruit with low antioxidant capacity were found to be susceptible to rind pitting. Furthermore, soluble sugars are believed to be involved in the defence mechanisms against non-chilling rind pitting in the fruit. Gene expression changes also provided clues about the possible mechanisms involved in non-chilling rind pitting development. / National Research Fund, Agricultural Research Council Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Crops and Citrus Academy

Thesis (M.Sc.( Agriculture (Horticulture)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / Avocado fruit ‘Hass’ exocarp changes colour from green to purple and black during ripening. However, uniform purple or black exocarp colour is not achieved during ripening, leading to consumers' rejection of fruit for not meeting quality standards. Avocado ‘Hass’ fruit harvested early remain green or develop a multicoloured appearance, concurrently devaluing their commercial value; and, therefore, unattractive to consumers. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the role of sucrose and calcium postharvest pulsing on early matured ‘Hass’ avocado exocarp colour change during ripening. In this study, early matured ‘Hass’ avocado fruit were harvested from Halls and Sons, Mataffin farm (25°25’39.13” S, 30°55’52.84” E), Nelspruit, South Africa with 10 cm pedicel at commercial dry matter content (22%). Thereafter, the fruit were transported to the University of Mpumalanga laboratory. In the laboratory, the study was divided into two experiments: Experiment 1 ‘Hass’ fruit were continuously infused through the pedicel with different sucrose concentrations; 0 (control), 0.2 and 0.5 mM L-1. Experiment 2 fruit were infused with different calcium chloride (CaCl2) concentrations; 0 (control), 2 and 3 mM L-1. In both experiments, treated and untreated fruit were stored at 5.5°C for 28 days. After removal from cold storage, fruit were ripened at room temperature (±25°C) and evaluated every other day for firmness, subjective colour (visual colour), objective colour parameters (lightness-L*, chroma-C* and hue angle- h°), external chilling injury and ripening percentage. The results showed that Su (0.2 mM L-1) pulsing extended the ripening period by one day, corresponding with maintained fruit firmness. Furthermore, Su (0.2 mM L-1) treated fruit reduced the ‘Hass’ avocado fruit chilling injury index (CII) during cold storage. With respect to colour change, Su (0.5 mM L-1) treated fruit developed purple colour when compared with Su (0.2 mM L-1), which only developed to olive colour on the final ripening day (day 6). In addition, the results showed that all sucrose concentrations had a significant decreasing effect (P < 0.05) on objective colour parameters (L*, C* and h°) and increasing visual colour rating. With respect to CaCl2 treatments, fruit firmness decline was significantly delayed, which resulted in extended ripening time. Moreover, CaCl2 (2 and 3 mM L-1) significantly decreased (P < 0.05) pericarp objective colour parameters (L*, C* and h°) and increased visual colour rating and developed purple colour on the final ripening day (days 6 and 8, respectively). In addition, pulsing with CaCl2 (2 and 3 mM L-1) concentration reduced chilling injury during storage compared with control fruit. In conclusion, the results of this study indicated that Su and CaCl2 applied as postharvest treatments may contribute to avocado colour development by increasing anthocyanin accumulation. However, future research is required to investigate whether these treatments affect anthocyanin biosynthesis at the gene level.

Thesis (MEng) -- Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: As overpopulation threatens the world’s ability to feed itself, food has become an invaluable resource. Unfortunately, almost a third of the food produced for human consumption is lost annually. Pests including insects, phytopathogens and weeds are responsible for more than a third of the annual major crop losses suffered around the world. The majority of current post-harvest control strategies employ synthetic agents. These compounds, however, have been found to be detrimental to the environment as well as human health, which has led researchers to investigate alternative strategies. Biocontrol agents are environmentally compatible, have a lower toxicity and are biodegradable, making them an attractive alternative to the synthetic control agents. The lipopeptides produced by Bacillus spp. in particular, have shown great potential as biocontrol agents against various post-harvest phytopathogens. Most biocontrol strategies apply the biocontrol organism, for example Bacillus, directly, whereas this study focused on the use of the lipopeptide itself as an antifungal agent. This is advantageous as the lipopeptides are less sensitive to their surroundings, such as temperature and pH, compared to living organisms, allowing for the production of a standardized product. This study investigated the production of the Bacillus lipopeptides surfactin, fengycin and iturin under controlled batch conditions. Parameters increasing lipopeptide production were quantified, focussing on antifungal lipopeptides (iturin and fengycin), and lipopeptide production was optimized. Experiments were performed in a fully instrumented 1.3 L bench-top bioreactor and lipopeptide analyses were performed via high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy (LC-MS). After screening four Bacillus spp., Bacillus amyloliquefaciens DSM 23117 was found to be the best antifungal candidate. This was based on it outperforming other candidates in terms of maximum antifungals produced, Yp/x,antifungals (yield per cells), and antifungal productivity. Nitrate, in the form of NH4NO3, was critical for lipopeptide production and an optimum concentration was observed above which the CDW (cell dry weight) no longer increased significantly and both μmax (maximum specific growth rate, h-1) and lipopeptide production decreased. For μmax, the optimum NH3NO4 concentration was 10 g/L and for lipopeptides it was 8 g/L. At these respective NH4NO3 concentrations μmax = 0.58 (h-1), the maximum antifungals (fengycin and iturin) were 285.7 mAU*min and the maximum surfactin concentration was 302 mg/L. The lipopeptides produced by B. amyloliquefaciens, the antifungals (fengycin and iturin) and surfactin, are secondary metabolites, regardless of the optimization treatment, i.e. increased NH4NO3 concentrations. Using 30% enriched air extended the nitrate utilization period, suggesting that when increasing supply concentration, more oxygen was available to act as electron acceptors, allowing nitrate to be used for lipopeptide production. The number of iturin and fengycin homologues generally increased with an increase in nitrate concentration. This suggested that process conditions, such as nitrate concentration, can be used to manipulate homologue ratios, allowing for the possibility to tailor-make biocontrol-agent upstream, during the production process, and possibly increase the efficacy of the biocontrol strategy. The lipopeptides produced by B. amyloliquefaciens showed complete inhibition against Botryotinia fuckeliana and diminished the growth capabilities of Botrytis cinerea. No inhibition was observed against Penicillium digitatum. These results indicate potential of the biocontrol strategy, although scale-up and fed-batch studies are recommended, especially when considering commercial implementation. Studies regarding the lipopeptide application method, i.e. a single application or multiple applications, should also be investigated as this will influence the efficacy of the lipopeptides against the target organisms. / AFRIKKANSE OPSOMMING: Met oorbevolking wat die wêreld se vermoë om die groeiende bevolking te onderhou belemmer, het dit noodsaaklik geword om huidige voedselbronne te beskerm. Daar word beraam dat een derde van die voedsel wat wêreldwyd geproduseer word vir menslike verbruik verlore gaan elke jaar. Verder is insekte, plantpatogene en onkruide verantwoordelik vir meer as ‘n derde van die verliese rakend jaarlikse oeste. Meeste bestaande na-oes beheermetodes maak gebruik van sintetiese stowwe. Ongelukkig kan hierdie verbindings nadelig wees vir die omgewing sowel as menlike gesondheid. Navorsers het hulsef dus toespits daarop om alternatiewe beheermetodes te ondersoek. Bio-beheermetodes is omgewingsvriendelik sowel as bio-afbreekbaar, wat hulle ideale alternatiewe maak vir die sintetiese stowwe. Bacillus spp. lipopeptiede het veral hoë potensiaal getoon as bio-beheermiddels teen verskeie na-oes plantsiektes. Meeste bio-beheermetodes wend die biobeheer organisme, soos Bacillus, direk aan, waar hierdie studie op die gebruik van lipopeptiede as ‘n beheermiddel gefokus het. Die voordeel is dat lipopeptidiede minder sensitief is vir hul omgewings, soos temperatuur en pH, i.v.m. organismes en die moontlikheid bied van ‘n gestandardiseerde produk. Hierdie studie het die produksie van spesifieke Bacillus lipopeptide, naamlik surfactin, fengycin en iturin, onder beheerde lottoestande ondersoek. Parameters wat lipopeptied produksie verhoog is gekwantifiseer, spesifiek antifungiese middels (iturin en fengycin) en lipopeptied produksie is geoptimeer. Eksperimente is uitgevoer in ‘n 1.3 L bioreaktor en lipopeptiedanaliese is met behulp van hoë druk vloeistof chromatografie en vloeistofchromatografie-massa spektroskopie uitgevoer. Van die vier moontlike Bacillus spp., was Bacillus amyloliquefaciens DSM 23117 die mees belowende antifungus-produserende kandidaat. Dit het beter resultate gelewer in terme van maksimale antifungiese produksie, Yp/x,antifungies (opbrengs per sel) asook antifungiese produktiwiteit. Nitraat, in hierdie geval NH4NO3, was noodsaaklik vir lipopeptied produksie en ‘n optimale konsentrasie is waargeneem waarbo die seldigtheid nie meer beduidend toegeneem het nie en beide die μmax (maksimale spesifieke groei tempo, h-1) en lipopeptied produksie afgeneem het. Die optimale NH4NO3 konsentrasie vir μmax was 10 g/L en vir lipopeptiedproduksie was 8 g/L. By 10 g/L NH4NO3 was μmax = 0.58 (h-1) en by 8 g/L was die maksimale antifungiese produksie (fengycin en iturin) 285.7 mAU*min en die maksimale surfactin produksie 302 mg/L onderskeidelik. Die lipopeptide, die antifungiese middels (fengycin en iturin) en surfactin, geproduseer deur B. amyloliquefaciens is sekondêre metaboliete, ongeag van die optimerings-behandelinge wat toegepas word, soos ‘n verhoging in NH4NO3 konsentrasie. Die gebruik van 30% verrykte suurstof het die nitraat verbruikingsperiode verleng, wat voorgestel het dat met die verryking, meer suurstof beskikbaar was om te dien as finale elektron ontvanger en sodoende die nitraat beskikbaar te stel vir lipopeptied produksie. Iturin en fengycin homoloë, oor die algemeen, het toegeneem soos wat die nitraat konsentrasie verhoog is. Hierdie resultate dui daarop dat prosestoestande, soos nitraat konsentrasie, gebruik kan word om die verhouding waarin lipopeptied homoloë geproduseer word te manipuleer. Hierdie resultate dui op die potensiaal vir die stroomop produksie van ‘n unieke bio-beheermiddel, wat die effektiwiteit van die bio-beheermetode moontlik sal verhoog. Die geproduseerde lipopeptiede het totale inhibisie getoon teen Botryotinia fuckeliana en ook fungiese aktiwiteit belemmer met Botrytis cinerea. Geen inhibisie is getoon teen Penicillium digitatum nie. Hierdie resultate toon die potensiaal van die bio-beheermetode, maar ‘n opskalerings-studie asook ‘n voerlot studie word aanbeveel, veral met die oog op moontlike kommersiële implementering van die strategie. Verdere studies met betrekking tot die aanwendingsmetode van die lipopeptiede moet ook verder ondersoek word, m.a.w. enkel teenoor menigte aanwendigs, aangesien dit die effektiwiteit van die lipopeptiede teen die teikenorganismes sal beïnvloed.

M. Tech. Agriculture / Brown rot caused by Monilinia laxa is the main pre and postharvest disease of peaches; it affects the shelf life and marketability of peaches. Increasing consumer concern regarding food safety makes it necessary to search for natural environmentally friendly alternative products for postharvest disease control. The objective of this study is to develop an environmentally friendly essential oil technology for the control of brown rot (M. laxa) in peaches at postharvest stage to replace the currently used synthetic fungicide (Iprodione)

Eight phylloplane yeasts were isolated from backyard apple trees in Corvallis, OR. Yeast isolates were classified to genus or species level. All isolates were tested in vitro for antagonistic activity against the postharvest pathogens Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum. Of these isolates, Aureobasidium pullulans, Sporobolomyces roseus Rhodotorula sp., consistently reduced mycelial growth of B. cinerea and P. expansum in nutrient yeast dextrose agar (pH 4.5 or 7.0) incubated for 8 or 30 days at 24 or 1 C, respectively. These three yeasts also were evaluated for their ability to suppress spore germination of B. cinerea and P. expansum in a gradient of apple juice concentrations and to suppress development of gray and blue mold lesions in inoculated fruits of Golden Delicious apple. Germination of B. cinerea and P. expansum was reduced significantly (P���0.05) when incubated with the yeast isolates in 100 or 50% apple juice, but not in 0, 1 or 10% apple juice. S. roseus and A. pullulans reduced significantly (P���0.05) the size of gray mold lesions in wounded fruit stored at 5 C and 24 C by 63 to 72 and 81 to 90%, respectively, when compared to the nontreated control. Size of blue mold lesions in fruit stored at 5 and 24 C also were reduced significantly (P���0.05) by 66 to 38 and 74 to 63%, respectively, when pre-treated with S. roseus and A. pullulans. In general, fruit rot suppression by some yeasts isolated in this study was similar in magnitude to suppression obtained by Cryptococcus laurentii isolate 87-108, a yeast with commercial potential to suppress postharvest rots of pome fruits. Pretreatment of apple wounds with washed cells of A. pullulans, S. roseus, Rhodotorula sp., resulted in disease suppression, but treatment of wounds with cell-free culture supernatant of these isolates did not affect lesion development. Population size of A. pullulans, S. roseus, and C. laurentii increased in apple wounds incubated at 5 or 24 C for up to 25 days, indicating that they colonized the wound site. Data collected in this study support the hypothesis that yeast isolates antagonize fruit pathogens by competing for nutrients in wounds on fruit surfaces. The isolates of A. pullulans and S. roseus show promise for commercial development. / Graduation date: 1997

The post-harvest physiology of nine frequently used indigenous southern African medicinal plants was investigated, in particular the effects of storage time and accelerated ageing on the biological activity and chemical constituents of these plants. Water, ethanol and hexane extracts of fresh plant material as well as material that had been stored in dry form in paper bags at room temperature for 90 days (short-term) were tested. Three bioassays, the COX-1 anti-inflammatory assay, nematode anthelmintic assay and minimum inhibitory concentration anti-bacterial assay, were used to determine biological activity. Thin layer chromatography of all the plant extracts were used to determine changes in chemical composition. The plants tested were Alepidea amatymbica Eckl. & Zeyh., Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br., Drimia robusta Bak., Vernonia colorata (Willd.) Drake, Scilla natalensis Planch., Eucomis autumnalis (Mill.) Chitt. subsp. autumnalis, Bowiea volubilis Harv. ex Hook. f., Helichrysum cymosum (L.) D. Don and Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.) B. L. Burtt. Only those plants, which are known to exhibit a particular biological activity either traditionally or scientifically, were tested in the relevant bioassays. Of the plant extracts tested for anthelmintic activity only the water extracts showed activity and very little change in activity was observed after storage. Of the plant extracts tested for anti-inflammatory activity the ethanol extracts generally yielded highest activity. S. natalensis and B. volubilis both showed an increase in cyclooxygenase inhibition (anti-inflammatory) activity after storage whereas S. aethiopicus, H. cymosum, D. robusta and V. colorata showed a loss in activity after storage. The anti-inflammatory activity of E. autumnalis did not change. The water extracts of plants tested for antibacterial activity showed no activity, whereas the ethanol extracts generally showed an increase in activity. The TLC fingerprints indicated that there was chemical break-down during storage in certain species. These corresponded to the changes in biological activity. Alepidea amatymbica, Eucomis autumnalis, Helichrysum cymosum, Leonotis leonurus, Siphonochilus aethiopicus and Vernonia colorata were investigated further as to the effect of one year's storage (long-term storage) on their chemical composition and biological activity. Similar trends to that of the 90-day storage were observed. Activity gained in plants that were stored for 90 days was retained after a year of storage. Elevated temperature and humidity (55 C and 100% relative humidity) were used to accelerate the ageing process of Alepidea amatymbica, Leonotis leonurus and Vernonia colorata plant material. Again changes in the chemical composition and biological activity were observed, and the extent of these changes was greater than those in the stored material. The compounds responsible for the cyclooxygenase inhibition in the ethanolic extracts of Alepidea amatymbica leaf material appear to be stable and were not affected by the conditions of the accelerated ageing procedure (55 C and 100% humidity for seven days), but the root material lost activity, as did the leaf material of Leonotis leonurus. The leaf material of Vernonia colorata showed a slight (8%) increase in cyclooxygenase inhibition activity. The response of the plant material to accelerated ageing with respect to antibacterial activity varied with plant species. Alepidea amatymbica root material and Vernonia colorata leaf material appear to be stable whereas the other plant materials lost activity after prolonged (25 days) ageing. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

‘Fuerte’ makes up 25% of the avocados exported from South Africa to European markets and requires shipping periods of up to 28 days and a correctly managed cold chain. A temperature of 5.5°C and expensive CA and 1-MCP treatments are currently used to delay ripening over this lengthy cold chain; however, fruit still appear on the European market showing signs of softening and physiological disorders. Increased competition on the global market and the disadvantage of a particularly long distance to the European market has challenged the South African export industry. These challenges have necessitated improved road and sea transport logistics, co-ordination with producing countries which supply fruit to European markets over similar periods as South Africa, and research into ultra-low temperature storage to possibly enable future access to new lucrative markets in the USA, China and Japan. It is also known that there are various ‘weak links’ in this cold chain and that cold chain breaks are detrimental to fruit quality, but further research into the negative effects of these cold chain breaks at ultra-low temperatures was needed. Thus, the objective of the study was to determine the potential for shipping ‘Fuerte’ avocados at temperatures of 2°C as well as determining the effects of cold chain breaks on fruit quality, throughout the growing season and possibly for an extended period of 56 days. ‘Fuerte’ avocados were harvested at three different maturity stages reflecting early-, mid- and late-season fruit, with moisture contents of 74%, 68% and 63%, respectively. Fruit were stored at 2°C or 5.5°C, treated with 1-MCP and waxed. Additionally cold chain breaks (24 hour delay and break at 14 days) were implemented. Fruit softening, mass loss, days-to-ripening, external and internal quality as well as antioxidant levels and total sugar levels were determined. The first aim was to determine whether a lower than currently used storage temperature could be a successful alternative to 1-MCP use. A storage temperature of 2°C provided good internal quality as well as reduced mass loss and fruit softening, which is related to the slightly reduced use of C7 sugars at 2°C compared with 5.5°C. Although the overall occurrence of external chilling injury was relatively low, 2°C storage caused a notably higher occurrence of external chilling injury than 5.5°C storage, particularly early in the season, but extended the days-to-ripening. Unfortunately, no correlation between the anti-oxidants in the exocarp and external damage was found. Waxing significantly reduced the external damage on fruit stored at 2°C, so much so, that the treatment combinations of ‘2°C, no 1-MCP, waxed’ showed no external chilling injury throughout the season. Further, waxing fruit at 2°C could eliminate the need for 1-MCP, delivering a product of the required shelf-life and quality. Best results were achieved for mid-season fruit stored at 2°C. Late-season fruit would potentially be the most profitable to store at this low temperature, however, body rots (anthracnose and stem-end rot) were more common in the late-season. Storage at 2°C can therefore maintain the internal quality over a storage period of 28 days and be a potential alternative to 1-MCP use as the season progresses. The effect of cold chain breaks on fruit quality was then investigated and showed that both a delay and a break in the cold chain increased mass loss and fruit softening, reduced days-to-ripening and increased external chilling injury, especially early in the season. Water loss was the main contributor to the decreased fruit quality which resulted from the delay in cooling, increasing external damage significantly, particularly early in the season. The break at 14 days had a marked effect on physiological activity of fruit during storage, seen mainly in the increased metabolic activity, resulting in increased fruit softening and water loss during storage and a decrease in C7 sugars and thus shelf-life, particularly for fruit stored at 5.5°C. Importantly, 1-MCP use and storage at 2°C reduced the effects of cold chain breaks with respect to fruit softening, however, lowering the storage temperature had a greater negating effect than 1-MCP and could be a successful alternative to the use of 1-MCP. The internal quality throughout the experiment was very good, with few internal disorders and no significant treatment effects on internal quality and C7 sugar concentrations. Overall, a break in the cold chain, before and during cold storage, resulted in a marked reduction in fruit quality. The storage temperature of 5.5°C should not be used for a 56 day storage period as it resulted in significant fruit softening during storage, even when 1-MCP was used, and resulted in significantly more external chilling injury in the mid- and late-season than at 2°C. Storage of 1-MCP treated, waxed fruit at 2°C, resulted in the best shelf-life and fruit quality, particularly mid-season fruit which had negligible external chilling injury and 100% sound fruit. Early-season fruit suffered significant external chilling injury at 2°C and late-season fruit had the highest body-rots and internal disorders at this storage temperature. Although mid-season fruit could be successfully stored at 2°C for 56 days, the use of a 56 day storage period is not recommended as a practical storage period, due to the high risk of external damage, particularly if maturity levels are not optimum and trees and fruit are not of the highest quality. Overall this thesis has shown that 1-MCP treatment can play an important role early in the season when fruit are susceptible to external damage, however, storage at 2°C results in good quality fruit and, when used in conjunction with waxing, appears to be a viable alternative to the use of 1-MCP, particularly later in the season. Further, the negative effects of cold chain breaks on fruit quality have been demonstrated and, importantly, the storage temperature of 2°C negates the fruit softening effects of these breaks, even if 1-MCP is not used. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

The use of sulphur as a method of postharvest disease control and colour retention in litchis is soon to be restricted by the European Union. It is therefore essential that new postharvest treatments and packaging techniques be developed in order to retain internal and external fruit qualities and thus allow for export. Good litchi quality is not only important for the export market but also for use on the local market. In this study, alternative methods for postharvest quality control were investigated with the aim of extending the litchi storage life to 40 days under modified storage. Packaging the fruit in polypropylene bags significantly decreased fruit water loss and resulted in an increase in shelf life, as determined by red colour and overall rind appearance. There was no distinct advantage of amodified atmosphere. The use of a punnet, lined with absorbent sheeting and placed within the sealed polypropylene bag, further improved the shelf life. The absorbent sheeting reduced the amount of free water and resulted in little pathogen infection, while the punnet was effective in protecting the fruit from damage. It was notable that most water loss occurred within the first 10 days of storage and that the majority would actually take place during the cooling phase. A hydrocooling technique was therefore investigated and was found to not significantly decrease water loss, possibly due to not hydrocooling the fruit for a long enough period of time. Temperature management was extremely important for both colour retention and pathogen control. It was found that treatments stored at 5.5QC showed better colour retention after the 40 days storage than the 1QC storage treatment. The higher storage temperature, however, enhances the potential for postharvest diseases. Three compounds, namely ISR 2000, 'Biosave' and F10, were tested for pathogen control. 'Biosave' showed the best results with the most effective concentration being 100 mill water and good pathogen control occurred when storage was at 10 C. Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity in the litchi rind was evaluated as it is thought to be closely related to browning of litchi fruit, probably due to the degradation of phenolics by PPO. Brown fruit had a high PPO activity whilst red fruit had much lower activity. It was also shown that PPO activity decrease over storage time, possibly due to product inhibition of the enzyme. The internal quality of the fruit was determined using the T88: acid ratio of the pulp, as it is well correlated to mean eating quality. For fruit to have excellent taste, it must have a T88: acid ratio of between 31:1 and 60:1. All the fruit had a ratio that met this criterion and would therefore ensure good eating quality. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

South Africa is the second largest exporter of citrus fruit in the world. There has recently emerged a strong demand for lemons in the world market due to their nutritional value, culinary and non-culinary uses. During exportation, fruit are subjected to low temperature (-0.5°C) for varying periods of time as an obligatory quarantine treatment. However, lemons are sensitive to low temperatures and easily develop chilling injury during this obligatory quarantine treatment. This has become a major limitation to the expansion of South Africa’s lemon industry. Postharvest treatments with methyl jasmonate (MJ) and / or salicylic acid (SA) have been successfully used in horticultural crops to reduce chilling injury. A similar treatment was applied to ‘Eureka’ lemons. During the 2008 harvest season, postharvest fruit were either dipped in 10 or 50 μM MJ or 2 or 2.5 mM SA solutions. A control or no dip treatment was also applied. Three replicates of 15 fruits per treatment were used. During the 2009 harvest season the following postharvest treatments were applied as dips: 10 μM MJ, 2 mM SA, 10 μM MJ & 2 mM SA, 1 μM MJ & 0.2 mM SA, or 0.1 μM MJ & 0.02 mM SA solutions. A control or no dip treatment was also applied. Three replicates of 15 fruits per treatment were used. Subsequently fruit were stored at -0.5ºC for 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42 days, before being transferred to room temperature (25°C) for 7 days where after chilling injury was rated. Treatments with 10 μM MJ and / or 2 mM SA reduced chilling injury symptoms in lemons harvested during the 2009 season. Although no visual symptoms of chilling injury were observed during the 2008 harvest season, treatments with 10 μM MJ and / or 2 mM SA reduced fruit mass loss, delayed the occurrence of stress symptoms such as lipid peroxidation and suppressed accumulation of ROS in the rind. Treatments with 10 μM MJ and / or 2 mM SA were more effective in inducing antioxidant capacity and other defence compounds such as phenolics, ascorbic acid, carbohydrates and chilling injury responses such as accumulation of proline in the rind. This may have increased the chilling tolerance of fruit during the cold storage. Therefore, this study revealed that MJ and SA have the potential to reduce and delay symptoms of chilling injury in lemons. This lead to the suggestion that both, MJ and SA dips should be further tested as treatments to mitigate chilling injury in lemons. Future studies should focus more on preventing the injury itself or preventing the primary event of chilling injury. This could probably reduce the chances of secondary events to take place. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.