The purpose of this study was to determine why South African long-distance runners start and continue to run long distances, what perceived psychological benefits and negative effects they experience as a result of their involvement in the sport, and what thoughts and emotions are associated with the runner's high. Questionnaires were sent to 2 000 1992 Two Oceans Marathon participants and 777 responded. Results show that South African long-distance runners start running chiefly for physical fitness and health reasons, and continue for these reasons as well as psychological benefit reasons. As a result of their involvement in the sport, they experience psychological benefits such as a positive mood, positive self-image and positive mental outlook. When unable to run, these benefits are reversed. They also experience negative effects such as relationship problems because of long-distance running. Many thoughts and emotions are associated with the runner's high, but most define it as an euphoric feeling / Art History, Visual Arts & Musicology / M.A. (Psychology)

The purpose of this study was to determine why South African long-distance runners start and continue to run long distances, what perceived psychological benefits and negative effects they experience as a result of their involvement in the sport, and what thoughts and emotions are associated with the runner's high. Questionnaires were sent to 2 000 1992 Two Oceans Marathon participants and 777 responded. Results show that South African long-distance runners start running chiefly for physical fitness and health reasons, and continue for these reasons as well as psychological benefit reasons. As a result of their involvement in the sport, they experience psychological benefits such as a positive mood, positive self-image and positive mental outlook. When unable to run, these benefits are reversed. They also experience negative effects such as relationship problems because of long-distance running. Many thoughts and emotions are associated with the runner's high, but most define it as an euphoric feeling / Art History, Visual Arts and Musicology / M.A. (Psychology)

Running economy is well established as a primary determinant of endurance running performance. However, there is a lack of clarity about the preferred measurement of running economy, its primary limiting factors and the most robust methods enhance running economy in highly trained athletes. Therefore, this thesis investigated the running economy of highly trained runners, exploring the reliability and validity of measures of running economy to deduce its most appropriate quantification, the application of innovative methods to enhance our understanding of an athlete s running economy, and a novel training method to enhance running economy. Chapter 3 revealed that energy cost and oxygen cost were shown to provide similarly high levels of reliability (typical error of measurement ~3%) for highly trained endurance runners when assessed using a short-duration incremental submaximal exercise protocol. In chapter 4, the analysis of a large cohort of highly trained endurance runners revealed that energy cost increased in a stepwise manner with increments in running speed (P<0.001), however oxygen cost remained consistent (P=0.54) across running speed; indicating that oxygen cost might not be an appropriate measure of running economy. Chapter 5 demonstrated that the inter-individual variation in the magnitude of changes in energy cost between different gradients (i.e. from flat running to uphill/downhill running) in highly trained runners was low. However, a disparity between the energy saving of running on a -5% gradient (-17%) and the additional energy cost of running on a +5% gradient (+32%) was evident. The cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis of a large cohort of highly trained runners in chapter 6 revealed a small (r=0.25) and moderate (r=0.35) association between energy cost and maximal oxygen uptake, respectively. Finally, chapter 7 demonstrated that eight weeks of supplementary downhill run training at vLTP in existing training programmes does not enhance running economy in already well trained runners (1.22 vs 1.20 kcal kg-1 km-1; P=0.41), despite a significant increase (+2.4%) in the velocity at lactate turnpoint. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrates that energy cost, expressed as kcal kg-1 km-1, provides a reliable and valid method to quantify running economy in trained distance runners. However, further investigation is required to identify robust training methods to enhance running economy in this already highly trained population.

The purpose of the study was to gain a deeper understanding of ultra-distance runners' experiences of running ultra-distance races. The study is based on six interviews with participants who have ever run an ultra-distance race, a race with a distance longer than 42,195 meters. Through a qualitative approach, a semi-structured interview guide and thematic analysis as an analysis tool, the collected data has been generated in four themes; nutrition and energy - to physically cope all the way, social support and cooperation during the race - a sense of belonging, goal-oriented behavior and self-control to confirm self-efficacy and test boundaries. The first theme aims to tell about the participants' reflections on energy and nutrition to cope all the way, as the stomach is often a common reason why you need to interrupt a race. The second theme explains the importance of social support and cooperation during the course of, among other things, the distraction of other challenges. The third theme describes goal-oriented behavior and the need for self-control among the participants. The fourth and final theme explains testing limits, which includes their need to test the body's mental and physical abilities to the limit. The study's conclusion shows that the participants' experiences have many common aspects in terms of their experiences. Their experience is characterized by stressors in the form of physical pain, lack of energy, mental strain and doubt. At the same time, social support and cooperation was the clearest theme throughout all interviews. Their experiences of running ultra-races stand out when it comes to testing limits. They seek to get through challenges and to test what the body can accomplish, and are happy to do so in community or in collaboration with others. It is based on confirmation of one's own ability to cope with something that is difficult and to feel group affiliation with other ultra runners. / Syftet med studien var att få en djupare förståelse om ultradistanslöpares upplevelser av att springa ultradistanslopp. Studien utgår ifrån sex stycken intervjuer med deltagare som någon gång har sprungit ett ultradistanslopp, alltså ett lopp med längre distans än 42195 meter. Genom kvalitativ ansats, semistrukturerad intervjuguide och tematisk analys som analysverktyg har den insamlade datan genererat i fyra teman; näring och energi - för att fysiskt klara hela vägen, socialt stöd och samarbete under loppet - en känsla av samhörighet, målinriktat beteende och självkontroll för att bekräfta självförmågan och testa gränserna.   Det första temat avser berätta om deltagarnas reflektioner kring energi och näring för att klara hela vägen, då magen ofta är en vanligt orsak till att man behöver avbryta ett lopp. Det andra temat förklarar vikten av socialt stöd och samarbete under loppet för bland annat distraktion av andra utmaningar. Det tredje temat beskriver målinriktat beteende och behovet av självkontroll hos deltagarna. Det fjärde och sista temat förklarar att testa gränser, vilket omfattar deras behov av att testa kroppens mentala och fysiska förmågor till det yttersta.    Studiens slutsats visar att deltagarnas upplevelser har många gemensamma aspekter vad det gäller deras upplevelser. Deras upplevelse präglas av stressorer i form av fysisk smärta, bristande energi, psykisk påfrestning och tvivel. Samtidigt som socialt stöd och samarbete var det mest tydligt genomgående temat i alla intervjuer. Deras upplevelser av att springa ultralopp utmärker sig vad det gäller att testa gränser. De söker att ta sig igenom utmaningar och att testa vad kroppen klarar av att åstadkomma, och gör det gärna i gemenskap eller i samarbete med andra. Det grundar sig i bekräftelse av den egna förmågan att klara av något som är svårt samt att känna gruppsamhörighet med andra ultralöpare.

Thesis (MSpor)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Various types of post-exercise recovery strategies have become part of the modern athlete’s daily routine. It is a well known that inadequate recovery will prolong the time it takes for the runner’s body to adequately adapt between training sessions and competitions. Anecdotal claims have been made about compression garments as a beneficial method to assist recovery after training sessions and competitions. Until now limited scientific research has addressed the influence that compression garments have on the recovery process after sporting activities. The benefits of compression garments, as a possible recovery modality, are that it is costeffective, practical and easily obtainable. This study endeavored to investigate the possible influence that compression garments may have on middle-aged long distance runners’ recovery rate after a prolonged run. This is the first study that has focused on compression garments as a post-exercise recovery modality for experienced middle-aged long distance runners. The other unique aspect of this study is the prolonged two-hour treadmill protocol that was used to induce muscle soreness. In addressing the aims, a randomized, crossover study design was used to investigate the possible benefits that the high pressure (CCL II 23-32 mmHg (mercury millimeter)) graduated compression garments may bring about. Seven competitive male long distance runners (height: 176.0 ± 8.6 cm; body mass: 92.5 ± 11.8 kg; VO2max: 45.7 ± 5.0 mL.kg-1.min-1) between the ages of 36 to 51 years volunteered for the study. The runners had to complete a two-hour treadmill run at 70 % of their predetermined maximum aerobic capacity, followed by a monitored 72-hour recovery period. The first part of the prolonged run was a 90–minute variant gradient run, followed by a 30-minute downhill run. Each subject acted as his own control and visited the Stellenbosch University’s Sport Physiology Laboratory (South Africa) on two occasions, separated by 7 to 28 days. One test was done with a compression garment (23 to 32 mmHg) and the other without. Testing included the measurement of lower limb circumferences (ankle, calf, mid- and proximal thigh), plasma lactate, lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase concentrations and the completion of subjective questionnaires on perceived muscle soreness (visual analog scale (VAS)). The lower extremities’ functional ability was determined with a time to exhaustion (TTE) step test, a vertical jump test (VJ) and modified sit-and-reach flexibility test. Preexercise measurements were taken and immediately after and during the 72 hour after the treadmill run and repeated for the second bout. The main outcomes of this study showed that the two-hour treadmill run induced delayed onset of muscle soreness, with and without the compression garment. Evidence of this was a significant rise in plasma creatine kinase (CKp) over the duration of both trials (P < 0.05). The compression garment significantly reduced swelling in the calf muscle (41.0 ± 0.2 vs. 41.5 ± 0.5 mm; P < 0.002). Runners showed a lower perceived muscular pain and discomfort while performing functional knee movements at 24 and 48-hours after the two-hour run with the compression garment (1.2 ± 1.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.4 cm and 0.9 ± 1.8 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6 cm on VAS, respectively; P < 0.05). Significant differences in perceived muscle soreness between the WCG and WOCG trials were observed at 24-hours after the run during rest (0.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.8 cm; P = 0.02) and with stretching (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 3.5 ± 2.5 cm on VAS P = 0.02). The perceived pain associated with pressure was significantly lower with the compression garment at 24 (307 %) and 48-hours (237 %) after the run (P < 0.05). Blood lactate levels were reduced during the acute phase of recovery at 10 (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.2 ± 0.9 mmol.L-1; P = 0.05) and 30 minutes (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.4 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1; P = 0.01) after the run, as well as plasma creatine kinase concentrations were statistically significantly lower at 24-hours (238.3 ± 81.3 vs. 413.3 ± 250.8 units.L-1; P = 0.005) after exercise with the compression garment. The two-hour treadmill run and the compression garment had no significant influence on the runners’ lower limb strength, power, endurance or flexibility (P > 0.05). Compression garments demonstrated the potential to enhance recovery after prolonged strenuous exercise in well trained middle-aged runners. In addition, runners did not experience additional fatigue from the moderate to high pressure garments. The effect of higher pressure compression garments on athletic performance and the psychological influence of the garment need further investigation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verskillende tipes naoefening herstelstrategië, vorm deel van die moderne atleet se daaglikse routine. Dit is wel bekend dat onvoldoende herstel sal beteken dat die atleet se liggaam langer sal neen om aan te pas tussen inoefen sessies en kompetisies. Sekere bewerings word al gemaak omtrent die voordeligheid van kompressiesokkies tydens die herstelperiode na oefening sessies en kompetisies. Tot nou toe was daar beperkte wetenskaplike navorsing oor die invloed van kompressie sokkies of die herstel proses van sport aktiwiteite. Die voordeel van kompressie sokkies as ‘n moontlike herstelmetode, is dat dit koste-effektief, prakties en maklik verkrybaar is. Hierdie studie poog om ‘n ondersoek in te stel na die moontlike invloed wat kompressie sokkies op middeljarige lang-aftstandatlete se herstelperiode sal hê na ‘n verlengde hardloopsessie. Hierdie is die eerste studie wat konsentreer op kompressie sokkies as ‘n naoefenings hersteltegniek vir ervare middeljarige lang-afstandatlete. Die ander unieke aspek van die ondersoek is die langdurige tweeuur trapmeul protokol wat gebruik word om spierpyn te veroorsaak. Om die doel te bereik, is ’n lukrake oorkruis studie gebruik om ondersoek in te stel na die moontlike voordele van die hoë druk (CCL II 23-32 mmHg) kompressie sokkies. Hierdie sokkies toon ’n progressiewe verhooging van druk vanaf die enkle tot onder die knieskyf. Sewe mededingende langafstand atlete (lengte : 176.0 ± 8.6 cm; liggaams massa: 92.5 ± 11.8 kg; VO2maks: 45.7 ± 5.0 mL.kg-1.min-1) tussen die ouderdomme van 36 en 51 jaar, het aan die studie deel geneem. Die wedlopers moes ‘n twee-uur lange trapmeul toets voltooi, teen 70% van hul vooraf bepaalde maksimum aerobiese kapasiteit. Dit is gevolg deur ‘n gemonitorde 72-uur herstel periode. Die eerste deel van die twee-uur hardloop sessie was ‘n 90-minuut afwisselende opdraende en afdraende hardloop stel, wat gevolg is deur a 30-minuut afdraande deel. Elke deelnemer was sy eie kontrole en het op twee geleenthede die Stellenbosch Universiteit se Sport Fisiologiese Laboratorium (Suid Afrika) besoek. Die twee besoeke is tussen 7 en 28 dae geskei. Een toets is met kompressie sokkies gedoen (23 – 32 mmHg) en die ander sonder. Die toetse het die volgende behels: laer been omtrekke (enkel, kuit, middel- and bo dy), die versameling en ontleding van bloed monsters vir plasma laktaat, laktaat dehydrogenase and kreatine kinase konsentrasies en die voltooing van subjektiewe vraelyste oor die graad van spierpyn ervaaring (“visual analog scale” (VAS)). Die onderlyf funksionele vermoëns is bepaal met ’n tyd tot uitputtings traptoets, ‘n vertikale sprong toets en ‘n gewysige sit-en-strek soepelheids toets. Data is voor die oefeninge in gevorder asook direk daarna, en gedurende die 72 uur na die trapmeul draf. Die metings vir die tweede sessie is herhaal. Die hoof uitkomste van die studie het gewys dat die twee-uur trapmeulsessie het spierpyn veroorsaak, met en sonder die kompressie sokkies. Die bewys hiervan was ‘n betekensvolle toename in plasma kreatien kinase (CKp) oor die tydperk van albei oefening toetse (P<0.05). Die kompressie sokkies het die swelling in die kuitspiere verminder, in vergelyking met die toetse sonder kompressie sokkies (41.0 ± 0.2 vs. 41.5 ± 0.5 mm; P < 0.002). Wedlopers met die kompressie sokkies het minder spierseerheid en ongerief aangeteken toe hulle knie beweegings gedoen het op 24 en 48-uur na die twee-ure trapmeul toets (1.2 ± 1.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.4 cm op VAS en 0.9 ± 1.8 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6 cm op VAS, onderskeidelik; P < 0.05). Betekenisvolle verskille is waargeneem tussen die toetse met en sonder kompressie sokkies, op 24-uur na die twee-ure toets gedurende rus (0.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.8 cm op VAS; P = 0.02) en met strek oefeninge (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 3.5 ± 2.5 cm op VAS P = 0.02). Die pyn wat ervaar was met drukking, was betekenisvol minder met die kompressie sokkies op 24 (307 %) en 48-uur (237 %) na die trapmeul sessie (P < 0.05). Bloed laktaat konsentrasie in die sirkulasie was verlaag gedurende die akute fase van die herstelings periode op 10 (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.2 ± 0.9 mmol.L-1; P = 0.05) en 30 minute (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.4 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1; P = 0.01) na die hardloop sessie, sowel as die plasma kreatine kinase konsentrasie was statisties betekenisvol laer by 24 uur (238.3 ± 81.3 vs 413.3 ± 250.8 eenhede L-1; P = 0.005) na die hardloop sessie met die kompressie sokkies. Die twee-ure trapmeul toets en die kompressie sokkies het geen betekenisvolle invloed gehad op die wedlopers se onderlyf ledemate se plofkrag, uithouvermoë of soepelheid (P > 0.05) nie. Kompressie sokkies het gewys dat dit potensiaal het om met herstel te help na lang en harde oefening in geoefende middeljarige atlete. Nietemin is daar verdere wetenskaplike navorsing nodig om dit te bevestig. Wedlopers het nie addisionele vermoeienis van die drukking van kompressie sokkies ervaar nie. Sterker drukkende kompressie sokkies sowel as die sielkundige invloed van die sokkies benodig verdere navorsing.spierpyn ervaaring (“visual analog scale” (VAS)). Die onderlyf funksionele vermoëns is bepaal met ’n tyd tot uitputtings traptoets, ‘n vertikale sprong toets en ‘n gewysige sit-en-strek soepelheids toets. Data is voor die oefeninge in gevorder asook direk daarna, en gedurende die 72 uur na die trapmeul draf. Die metings vir die tweede sessie is herhaal. Die hoof uitkomste van die studie het gewys dat die twee-uur trapmeulsessie het spierpyn veroorsaak, met en sonder die kompressie sokkies. Die bewys hiervan was ‘n betekensvolle toename in plasma kreatien kinase (CKp) oor die tydperk van albei oefening toetse (P<0.05). Die kompressie sokkies het die swelling in die kuitspiere verminder, in vergelyking met die toetse sonder kompressie sokkies (41.0 ± 0.2 vs. 41.5 ± 0.5 mm; P < 0.002). Wedlopers met die kompressie sokkies het minder spierseerheid en ongerief aangeteken toe hulle knie beweegings gedoen het op 24 en 48-uur na die twee-ure trapmeul toets (1.2 ± 1.6 vs. 3.8 ± 2.4 cm op VAS en 0.9 ± 1.8 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6 cm op VAS, onderskeidelik; P < 0.05). Betekenisvolle verskille is waargeneem tussen die toetse met en sonder kompressie sokkies, op 24-uur na die twee-ure toets gedurende rus (0.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.4 ± 0.8 cm op VAS; P = 0.02) en met strek oefeninge (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 3.5 ± 2.5 cm op VAS P = 0.02). Die pyn wat ervaar was met drukking, was betekenisvol minder met die kompressie sokkies op 24 (307 %) en 48-uur (237 %) na die trapmeul sessie (P < 0.05). Bloed laktaat konsentrasie in die sirkulasie was verlaag gedurende die akute fase van die herstelings periode op 10 (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.2 ± 0.9 mmol.L-1; P = 0.05) en 30 minute (1.8 ± 0.5 vs. 2.4 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1; P = 0.01) na die hardloop sessie, sowel as die plasma kreatine kinase konsentrasie was statisties betekenisvol laer by 24 uur (238.3 ± 81.3 vs 413.3 ± 250.8 eenhede L-1; P = 0.005) na die hardloop sessie met die kompressie sokkies. Die twee-ure trapmeul toets en die kompressie sokkies het geen betekenisvolle invloed gehad op die wedlopers se onderlyf ledemate se plofkrag, uithouvermoë of soepelheid (P > 0.05) nie. Kompressie sokkies het gewys dat dit potensiaal het om met herstel te help na lang en harde oefening in geoefende middeljarige atlete. Nietemin is daar verdere wetenskaplike navorsing nodig om dit te bevestig. Wedlopers het nie addisionele vermoeienis van die drukking van kompressie sokkies ervaar nie. Sterker drukkende kompressie sokkies sowel as die sielkundige invloed van die sokkies benodig verdere navorsing.

This thesis is concerned with mathematical modelling and optimal control of constrained systems. Each of the systems under consideration is a system that can be controlled by one of the variables, and this control is subject to constraints. First, we consider middle-distance running where a runner's horizontal propulsive force is the control which is constrained to be within a given range. Middle-distance running is typically a strategy-intensive race as slipstreaming effects come into play since speeds are still relatively fast and runners can leave their starting lane. We formulate a two-runner coupled model and determine optimal strategies using optimal control theory. Second, we consider two applications of control systems with delay related to R&D expenditure. The first of these applications relates to the defence industry. The second relates to the pharmaceutical industry. Both applications are characterised by a long delay between initial investment in R&D and seeing the benefits of R&D realised. We formulate models tailored to each application and use optimal control theory to determine the optimal proportion of available funds to invest in R&D over a given time horizon. Third, we consider a mathematical model of urban burglary based on the Short model. We make some modifications to this model including the addition of deterrence due to police officer presence. Police officer density is the control variable, which is constrained due to a finite number of police officers. We look at different control strategies for the police and their effect on burglary hot-spot formation.

The main problems concerning birth of running injuries is their unclear ethiopathogenesis and high frequency. Injuries are often lined with forces affected on tread-down which have to be defused by running shoes. There are also opinions that currently used footwear can cause injuries on the contrary. This work explores impact of particular types of running shoes for influencing of stability. Methods: There are compared two groups of runners: minimalists and classic runners. Their stability is examined with help of posturography in three versions: barefoot, classic and minimalistic footwear. Thereafter there is analyzed relation among stability, used footwear, training usage and frequency of injuries. Results: Minimalists and classic runners have the same stability while they are barefoot. Usage of footwear does not cause significant deterioration of stability in any of groups. Nevertheless most of runners subjectively evaluate the variant of testing barefoot as the simplest. There is more frequent occurence of flat foot among classic runners in comparison with minimalists. Flat foot increases risk of formation injuries, on the contrary, regular compensation motion activity decreases this risk.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Med.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

The purpose of the study was to explore the psychosocial factors involved in the susceptibility, experience and rehabilitation of injuries sustained in long-distance running in order to develop a biopsychosocial theoretical model that will help explain the experience of injury and the successful rehabilitation thereof in long-distance running. The study was approached from a biopsychosocial theoretical perspective. A mixed methods research design with the purpose of expansion and using 15 case studies was employed. Purposive sampling with a snowballing effect was used to select the 15 long-distance runners who were injured or had recently recovered from injury. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with each of the participants. Furthermore, each participant completed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. An examination of the participants’ experiences of injury reveals that injury has an effect on and is affected by the following factors: running history and training program; perceived benefits and disadvantages of running; personal understanding of injury; personality factors; psychological responses to injury; perceived causes of injury; approach to rehabilitation; and coping mechanisms. Furthermore, there is an inherent interplay of biological or physical, psychological and social processes involved in the experience of injuries sustained in long-distance running. Based on the findings of the study, the biopsychosocial model of long-distance running injuries is proposed. Although the model emanates from the experiences of the 15 participants in the study, it may be applied to long-distance runners in general. A long-distance runner’s experience of running is the core of the model. The model depicts how each of the factors noted previously has an effect on and is affected by injury; thus, showing the integral relationship between injury and each of the factors. Furthermore, the biopsychosocial nature of the model is also portrayed in the model. Cognizance is also taken that all long-distance runners are individuals and may respond to injury in a unique manner. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Psychology / unrestricted

Contemporary literature says that women are less competitive than men. In this thesis I find out if this is the case even in an environment of elite Czech distant runners. Statistical and econometric methods applied to the data from the years 2006-2013 reveal significant differences between the sexes across all distances from 1 500 meters to marathon. These are the highest in the longest distances when Czech men run marathons five times faster than Czech women. Furthermore, I show that the gender gap in competitiveness remains constant on the track races, but in the road racing is declining. And because the acceleration among women occurs primarily in the lower ranks of the elite, it is concurrently valid "biological-predisposition" hypothesis, which is based on a constant differences between men and women due to biological differences, and "economic-incentive" hypothesis, according to which the differences is decreasing due to increasing returns of success in the form of the same financial rewards for winning. Completely fastest women act according to the first-mentioned, next best female runners according to the second. Finally, I suggest that growing quantity of women in road races plays substantial role in the women's approaching to men.