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Edited by Samuel S. Epstein, with associate editors: Joshua Lederberg [and others] / "Based on a symposium cosponsored by the Center for Studies of Narcotic and Drug Abuse, NIMH, and by the Environmental Mutagen Society, San Francisco, October 29 and 30, 1969." / Includes bibliographies.

This thesis contains an overview of the mechanisms of addiction as well as a description of the impairments related to drug abuse. The general view of addiction is that it depends on three characteristics that have separate neural mechanisms, called “wanting”, liking and learning. “Wanting” is described as a desire evoked by reward cues, liking refers to the pleasure of getting a reward and learning is described in terms of classical conditioning. “Wanting” and liking are usually in agreement but in addiction they are dissociable, that is, wanting a drug but getting no pleasure from it. Reward cues, acquired through learning, awakes the motivation to obtain the drug again. This can be problematic when trying to cease drug taking. The dopamine system in the brain is much discussed in relation to addiction and its neural correlates. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is suggested to be altered in addiction, and this may underlie some of the impairments discussed. Addiction is also strongly related to cognitive impairments such as working memory problems, impulsivity, attentional problems and decision-making impairments. Affective impairments, such as empathy problems, may also to have some connection to addiction, although this is less clear.

Bakgrund: Individer med narkotikamissbruk tillhör en stigmatiserad grupp som löper stor risk att drabbas av ohälsa och därför kan förväntas ha mycket kontakt med hälso- och sjukvården. Studier har visat att sjuksköterskor har negativa attityder och försämrat bemötande gentemot denna grupp. Syfte: Syftet var att beskriva vilka upplevelser personer med aktivt eller tidigare narkotikamissbruk haft av bemötande från sjuksköterskor och annan vårdpersonal samt deras inställning till hälso- och sjukvård. Metod: En intervjustudie med kvalitativ ansats genomfördes. Resultat: Analysen av intervjuerna resulterade i fyra teman: Stigmatiserande bemötande, Motarbetande bemötande, Attityder till hälso- och sjukvården och Mänskligt bemötande är gott bemötande. Slutsatser: Deltagarna i den här studien har inom hälso- och sjukvården upplevt negativt bemötande kopplat till deras aktiva eller tidigare missbruksproblematik. Negativt bemötande mot en utsatt grupp kan leda till förstärkt utanförskap, känslor av maktlöshet och ökad risk för ohälsa. Med ökad kunskap kan sjuksköterskan ge bättre bemötande vilket skulle kunna ha hälsofrämjande effekt. Implikationer: Mer specifikt utbildningsinnehåll om beroende och narkotikamissbruk behövs både på grundutbildningen och som fortbildning för redan verksamma sjuksköterskor för att denna patientgrupp ska få ett bättre bemötande. / Background: Individuals with drug abuse belong to a stigmatized group at high risk of ill-health and can therefore be expected to be in much contact with health care. Studies have shown that nurses have negative attitudes and deficient encounter towards this group. Aim: The aim was to describe what experiences persons with present or former drug abuse has had regarding encounters with nurses and other health care personnel and also their attitude regarding health care. Method: An interview study with a qualitative approach was conducted. Result: The analysis of the interviews resulted in four themes: Stigmatizing encounters, Opposing encounters, Attitudes regarding health care and Humanly encounters are good encounters. Conclusions: The participants in this study have experienced negative encounters in health care related to their present or former drug abuse. Negative encounters towards an exposed group can lead to strengthened exclusion, feelings of powerlessness and increased risk of illness. With enhanced knowledge, the nurse can provide better encounters which could have a health promoting effect. Implications: More specific education about addiction and drug abuse is needed both in the undergraduate program and as further training for practicing nurses in order to give this patient group a better encounter.

The purpose of this study is to compare the drug abusing adolescent, along with his family, with a non-drug abusing adolescent and his family by (l) a comparison of the adolescents on measures of self esteem and perceived parental behavior, (2) a comparison of the parents of drug abusing adolescents with the parents of non-drug abusing adolescents on child-rearing attitudes and on distortion in perceived parental behavior, and (3) an identification of the salient factors contributing to the prediction of drug-using behavior in adolescents. The adolescent's self esteem, his perception of parental behavior, the ability of the parents to predict the child's parental perceptions, and the professed parental attitudes toward confidence and responsibility in child-rearing, all combine to suggest a set of factors differentiating the drug abusing adolescent from the non-drug abusing adolescent.

This study preliminarily identified clinical supervision competencies needed for alcohol and other drug abuse (AODA) clinical supervisors for integration into rehabilitation counselor training (RCT) curriculum. The Delphi method via LimeSurvey® was utilized to identify competencies specific to AODA clinical supervision. A panel of six experts in RCT and AODA clinical supervision completed five rounds of data collection beginning with an open-ended question. Consensus and stability of responses were calculated following Rounds 2-5 of data collection. Panelist fatigue resulted in data collection being discontinued after Round 5, prior to a consensus or stability of responses being reached. A total of 115 competencies and 51 competency sub-items were administered in Round 5. Results suggested that a consensus was not reached on items as one panelist represented a minority view on many items during multiple rounds of data collection. This panelist discontinued responding during the fifth round of data collection. Rank analysis of items based upon mean response was inconclusive due to limited sample size and response options. Sub-item analysis revealed mixed results regarding original competencies versus sub-items. At times a competency was rated higher, at times a sub-item was rated higher, and in other examples a second sub-item was rated higher. A clear pattern of responses for sub-items was not evident upon visual inspection of mean responses. Content analysis with two reliability raters in addition to the primary investigator suggested competencies fell into seven content areas: Legal and Ethical Concerns; Organizational Management, Administration, and Program Development; Personal Characteristics and Skills of Leadership; Supervisee Performance Evaluation and Feedback; Supervisory Relationship; Theory, Roles, and Interventions of Clinical Supervision; and Treatment Related Knowledge and Skills. Implications for the field, supervisors, supervisees, and rehabilitation educators; limitations including panel and data collection, technology, and reliability and validity; and future research were discussed.

The goal of this research is to analyze the stigmatization of opioid addiction within the framework of emergency care from an ethnographic perspective. Interviews with those who have been swept up in the current opioid epidemic indicate that stigma, or a shame or dishonor, and socioeconomic insecurity emerge often as common themes in their emergency care experiences. In many cases, socioeconomic insecurity most intensely translates into a lack of access to healthcare and emergency rooms across the country often function as primary care for uninsured populations. The central field site selected for this study was the emergency department of an urban trauma-level research hospital in an attempt to document the process of care for those in opioid crisis and the challenges healthcare providers face in facilitating this care. The aim of this research is to discover how stigma affects care in emergency room settings during an acute opioid crisis. This is a moment when patients may be most open to the idea of detoxification and sobriety. In this study, I argue that addiction can be shifted from being viewed as a disgraceful state to a medical condition, by uncovering what experiences overdose victims have while under emergency care, how patients experience stigma related to their opioid crisis, and what challenges healthcare providers describe while facilitating care during crisis. Findings suggest that stigma permeates the interactions drug-addicted patients have with healthcare professionals and that it may have a negative impact on their decision to seek further treatment. Application of results in the form of a community resource guide made available to patients and hospital staff indicate the potential for reducing stigma of intravenous/opioid-related addiction as healthcare providers are more able to discern gaps in care for addicted patients and facilitate greater follow-up care and access to resources. This thesis illustrates the potential for qualitative analysis of acute care to uncover vital next steps in reducing the stigma surrounding opioid addiction. Reducing stigma in the provision of care could foster more integrative approaches to treatment, help inform new protocols for caregivers, uncover resources to aid healthcare providers, and potentially provide a more substantial level of care and access to resources for the patient in crisis—one that may facilitate recovery in lieu of relapse.

Álcool e cigarro são as drogas lícitas mais consumidas no mundo. O uso abusivo tanto do álcool quanto do cigarro está associado à morbidade e mortalidade em função do risco de dependência e danos à saúde humana. Estas drogas de abuso estão associadas a diversas patologias, dentre elas as doenças hepáticas e renais. Apesar de diversos estudos mostrarem os efeitos deletérios do álcool e do cigarro em diferentes tecidos, a literatura é escassa no que se refere aos efeitos da associação dessas duas drogas de abuso. Portanto, nosso objetivo foi avaliar alterações hepáticas e renais em ratos expostos ao álcool, fumaça de cigarro ou sua associação. Ratos Wistar, machos, adultos (~280 g) foram subdivididos em 4 grupos (n = 10/grupo): controle (CTR), administrados com álcool (ALC), expostos à fumaça do cigarro (TAB) ou sua associação (ALTB). Os animais do grupo CTR e do grupo TAB recebiam solução glicosada 8% por via intragástrica (IG); os animais do grupo ALC e ALTB, eram administrados com 2 g/kg (20% p/v) de álcool, diluído em solução glicosada a 3%, também via IG. Todos os grupos foram tratados duas vezes ao dia, por 28 dias. No 29º dia os ratos foram eutanasiados e o sangue troncular coletado para determinação das enzimas alanina e aspartato aminotransferases (AST e ALT), creatinina e ureia. Fígado e rins foram dissecados, pesados e armazenados em solução fixadora para processamento histológico, para posterior avaliação das alterações morfológicas. Peso corporal também foi monitorado ao longo do experimento. Nossos resultados mostraram menor ganho de peso corporal nos animais TAB e ALTB (CTR: 49,0 ± 3,1; ALC: 38,0 ± 4,7; TAB*: 15,9 ± 3,2 e ALTB*: 23,4 ± 2,6 g, *P < 0,001). O grupo TAB também apresentou menor peso relativo da gordura retroabdominal (-36%) quando comparado ao grupo ALC. Ainda para o grupo TAB observamos redução significativa da enzima ALT (P = 0,020). Creatinina estava aumentada no grupo ALTB (P = 0,021). Considerando o efeito dos tratamentos sobre as alterações morfológicas no tecido hepático, observamos aumento de marcadores de necrose para os animais dos grupos ALC, TAB ou ALTB, quando comparados ao CTR. Verificamos também aumento da tumefação para os grupos TAB e ALTB e presença de infiltrado perivascular no grupo ALTB. Em relação as alterações sobre o tecido renal, constatamos a presença de necrose para os grupos ALC, TAB e ALTB quando comparados com o CTR. Relatamos ainda presença de vacuolização citoplasmática no grupo ALTB quando comparado com o grupo ALC. Podemos concluir que a exposição à fumaça de cigarro interfere sobre o ganho de peso corporal e deposição de gordura retroabdominal. Além disso, o uso crônico de doses moderadas de álcool, exposição à fumaça do cigarro ou sua associação provoca necrose hepática e renal. O risco de dano hepático foi maior pelo álcool, enquanto o risco de dano renal foi maior para o cigarro. A associação dessas duas drogas de abuso parece contribuir para aumento de risco de dano renal. / Alcohol and cigarette are the most consumed illicit drugs in the world. The abusive use of both alcohol and cigarette is associated with morbidity and mortality due to the risk of dependence and harm to human health. These drugs of abuse are associated with various diseases, among them, the liver and kidney diseases. Although several studies have shown the harmful effects of alcohol and cigarette in different tissues, the literature is scarce regarding the effects of the combined use of these two drugs of abuse. Therefore, our objective here was to evaluate the hepatic and renal damage in rats exposed to alcohol, cigarette smoke or their association. Male, adult, Wistar rats (~ 280 g) were divided into 4 groups (n = 10 / group): control (CTR), administered with alcohol (ALC), exposed to the cigarette smoke (TAB), or their association (ALTB). Animals in the CTR group and in the TAB group were administered with a 8% glucose solution, via intragastric (IG); ALC and ALTB groups received 2 g/kg (20% w/v) alcohol, diluted in 3% glucose solution, via IG. All groups were treated twice a day for 28 days. On the 29th day the rats were euthanized and trunk blood was collected for enzymes alanine aminotransferase and aspartate (AST and ALT), creatinine and urea determination. Liver, kidneys and retroabdominal fat were dissected, weighed, and stored in fixative solution for histological processing for further evaluation of the hepatic and renal morphological changes. Body weight was also monitored throughout the experiment. Our results showed lower body weight gain in animals TAB and ALTB than CTR and ALC (CTR: 49.0 ± 3.1; ALC: 38.0 ± 4.7; TAB *: 15.9 ± 3.2 and ALTB * 23.4 ± 2.6 g, * P < 0.001). The TAB group also showed lower relative weight of retroabdominal fat (-36%) compared to the ALC group. Still, for the TAB group we observed a significant decreases from ALT enzyme (P = 0.020). Creatinine was increased in ALTB group (P = 0.021). Regarding hepatic morphological changes, we found an increase in necrosis markers from ALC, TAB and ALTB than CTR rats. We also showed increased swelling in the TAB and ALTB groups and perivascular infiltrate in ALTB group. Regarding the changes on renal tissue, we also observed necrosis for all groups. Vacuolization were significant higher in ALTB than ALC group. Thus, we may conclude that cigarette smoke interferes with the body weight gain and retroabdominal fat deposition. Additionally, the chronic use of moderate doses of alcohol, exposure to cigarette smoke or their combined use is damaging to the hepatic and renal tissues. The risk of liver damage was higher by alcohol, while the risk of kidney damage was higher for cigarette smoke. The combination of these two drugs of abuse appears to contribute to increased risk of kidney damage.

Certains médicaments agissant sur le système nerveux central ont comme particularité d'entraîner parfois des troubles de l'abus et de la dépendance. Ces effets indésirables sont étudiés avant la mise sur le marché du médicament, lors des essais cliniques et non cliniques. Cependant, l'abus est un phénomène plurifactoriel, influencé par des facteurs liés à la substance, individuels et environnementaux. Ces déterminants ne peuvent pas être pris en compte avant la mise sur le marché du médicament et rendent essentielle la surveillance de l'abus de médicaments après la mise sur le marché, par l'intermédiaire notamment d'études pharmacoépidémiologiques. Une surveillance efficace de l'abus de médicament implique de comprendre les déterminants de l'abus et ses mécanismes sous-jacents. L'objectif de ce travail de thèse est donc d'analyser des déterminants de l'abus en utilisant des approches pharmacoépidémiologiques. Le premier travail a été d'établir un état des lieux des systèmes de surveillance de l'abus de médicaments en France et à l'étranger (publication n°1). Nous avons par la suite utilisé une enquête en population auprès des patients fréquentant des centres de soins spécialisés pour les usagers de drogues, afin d'étudier l'impact de la mise sur le marché de génériques de la Buprénorphine Haut Dosage (BHD) sur l'abus de BHD (publication n°2). Cette étude nous a permis d'analyser l'influence de la formulation sur l'abus de médicaments. L'exploration de la localisation géographique comme déterminant de l'abus n'a jamais été réalisée en France. / Some central nervous system medications sometimes lead to abuse or dependence. These adverse effects are assessed using premarketing studies such as clinical trials and non clinical studies. However, abuse is influenced by many factors, substance-related, individual and environmental. These factors could not be taken into account in premarketing studies. Thus, postmarketing surveillance of prescription drug abuse, using in particular pharmacoepidemiologic studies is essential. An efficient postmarketing surveillance requires the comprehension of abuse-related factors and underlying mechanisms. The purpose of this work was to analyse prescription drug abuse factors using pharmacoepidemiological approaches. The first part of this work was an overview of postmarketing surveillance systems dedicated to prescription drug abuse in France and in foreign countries (publication n°1). Then, we used a survey in population of patients seen in care centres dedicated to drug users in order to assess the impact of buprenorphine maintenance generic introduction on buprenorphine maintenance abuse (publication n°2). This study allows to observe the influence of the formulation on prescription drug abuse. The factors related to geographic area have never been explored in France, at our knowledge. Therefore, we studied geographic variations of prescription opioid abuse in three regions of southern France, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur-Corse, Rhône-Alpes and Midi-Pyrénées using a pharmacoepidemiologic approach based on prescription drug reimbursement database, the doctor shopping method (publication n°3).

Álcool e cigarro são as drogas lícitas mais consumidas no mundo. O uso abusivo tanto do álcool quanto do cigarro está associado à morbidade e mortalidade em função do risco de dependência e danos à saúde humana. Estas drogas de abuso estão associadas a diversas patologias, dentre elas as doenças hepáticas e renais. Apesar de diversos estudos mostrarem os efeitos deletérios do álcool e do cigarro em diferentes tecidos, a literatura é escassa no que se refere aos efeitos da associação dessas duas drogas de abuso. Portanto, nosso objetivo foi avaliar alterações hepáticas e renais em ratos expostos ao álcool, fumaça de cigarro ou sua associação. Ratos Wistar, machos, adultos (~280 g) foram subdivididos em 4 grupos (n = 10/grupo): controle (CTR), administrados com álcool (ALC), expostos à fumaça do cigarro (TAB) ou sua associação (ALTB). Os animais do grupo CTR e do grupo TAB recebiam solução glicosada 8% por via intragástrica (IG); os animais do grupo ALC e ALTB, eram administrados com 2 g/kg (20% p/v) de álcool, diluído em solução glicosada a 3%, também via IG. Todos os grupos foram tratados duas vezes ao dia, por 28 dias. No 29º dia os ratos foram eutanasiados e o sangue troncular coletado para determinação das enzimas alanina e aspartato aminotransferases (AST e ALT), creatinina e ureia. Fígado e rins foram dissecados, pesados e armazenados em solução fixadora para processamento histológico, para posterior avaliação das alterações morfológicas. Peso corporal também foi monitorado ao longo do experimento. Nossos resultados mostraram menor ganho de peso corporal nos animais TAB e ALTB (CTR: 49,0 ± 3,1; ALC: 38,0 ± 4,7; TAB*: 15,9 ± 3,2 e ALTB*: 23,4 ± 2,6 g, *P < 0,001). O grupo TAB também apresentou menor peso relativo da gordura retroabdominal (-36%) quando comparado ao grupo ALC. Ainda para o grupo TAB observamos redução significativa da enzima ALT (P = 0,020). Creatinina estava aumentada no grupo ALTB (P = 0,021). Considerando o efeito dos tratamentos sobre as alterações morfológicas no tecido hepático, observamos aumento de marcadores de necrose para os animais dos grupos ALC, TAB ou ALTB, quando comparados ao CTR. Verificamos também aumento da tumefação para os grupos TAB e ALTB e presença de infiltrado perivascular no grupo ALTB. Em relação as alterações sobre o tecido renal, constatamos a presença de necrose para os grupos ALC, TAB e ALTB quando comparados com o CTR. Relatamos ainda presença de vacuolização citoplasmática no grupo ALTB quando comparado com o grupo ALC. Podemos concluir que a exposição à fumaça de cigarro interfere sobre o ganho de peso corporal e deposição de gordura retroabdominal. Além disso, o uso crônico de doses moderadas de álcool, exposição à fumaça do cigarro ou sua associação provoca necrose hepática e renal. O risco de dano hepático foi maior pelo álcool, enquanto o risco de dano renal foi maior para o cigarro. A associação dessas duas drogas de abuso parece contribuir para aumento de risco de dano renal. / Alcohol and cigarette are the most consumed illicit drugs in the world. The abusive use of both alcohol and cigarette is associated with morbidity and mortality due to the risk of dependence and harm to human health. These drugs of abuse are associated with various diseases, among them, the liver and kidney diseases. Although several studies have shown the harmful effects of alcohol and cigarette in different tissues, the literature is scarce regarding the effects of the combined use of these two drugs of abuse. Therefore, our objective here was to evaluate the hepatic and renal damage in rats exposed to alcohol, cigarette smoke or their association. Male, adult, Wistar rats (~ 280 g) were divided into 4 groups (n = 10 / group): control (CTR), administered with alcohol (ALC), exposed to the cigarette smoke (TAB), or their association (ALTB). Animals in the CTR group and in the TAB group were administered with a 8% glucose solution, via intragastric (IG); ALC and ALTB groups received 2 g/kg (20% w/v) alcohol, diluted in 3% glucose solution, via IG. All groups were treated twice a day for 28 days. On the 29th day the rats were euthanized and trunk blood was collected for enzymes alanine aminotransferase and aspartate (AST and ALT), creatinine and urea determination. Liver, kidneys and retroabdominal fat were dissected, weighed, and stored in fixative solution for histological processing for further evaluation of the hepatic and renal morphological changes. Body weight was also monitored throughout the experiment. Our results showed lower body weight gain in animals TAB and ALTB than CTR and ALC (CTR: 49.0 ± 3.1; ALC: 38.0 ± 4.7; TAB *: 15.9 ± 3.2 and ALTB * 23.4 ± 2.6 g, * P < 0.001). The TAB group also showed lower relative weight of retroabdominal fat (-36%) compared to the ALC group. Still, for the TAB group we observed a significant decreases from ALT enzyme (P = 0.020). Creatinine was increased in ALTB group (P = 0.021). Regarding hepatic morphological changes, we found an increase in necrosis markers from ALC, TAB and ALTB than CTR rats. We also showed increased swelling in the TAB and ALTB groups and perivascular infiltrate in ALTB group. Regarding the changes on renal tissue, we also observed necrosis for all groups. Vacuolization were significant higher in ALTB than ALC group. Thus, we may conclude that cigarette smoke interferes with the body weight gain and retroabdominal fat deposition. Additionally, the chronic use of moderate doses of alcohol, exposure to cigarette smoke or their combined use is damaging to the hepatic and renal tissues. The risk of liver damage was higher by alcohol, while the risk of kidney damage was higher for cigarette smoke. The combination of these two drugs of abuse appears to contribute to increased risk of kidney damage.