Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Although TB is a curable communicable disease, poor adherence to TB treatment is a major barrier to TB control in South Africa as it increases the risks of morbidity, mortality and drug resistance at individual and community level. As a result, multi-drug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) has become a serious public health issue. Underpinning this study was the assumption that a client-centred approach to treatment of MDR-TB clients, with a hospital programme which adopts an integrated multidisciplinary approach that is client-centred and is not purely biomedically driven, would improve treatment outcomes of MDR-TB clients.

Background: Fourteen thousand (14, 000) people fell ill with Multi-Drug Resistant (MDR) or Rifampicin-Resistant (RR) Tuberculosis (TB) in South Africa (SA) in 2019. Aminoglycosides, which are commonly used anti-tuberculosis drugs in the treatment for RR/MDR-TB patients, are associated with ototoxicity (cochlear or vestibular). Aminoglycoside-induced cochleotoxicity is characterised by permanent, bilateral, highfrequency (HF) sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). The impact of hearing loss (HL) due to aminoglycoside-induced cochleotoxicity can influence a patient's communication, psychological, physical functioning and overall well-being negatively and lead to a reduced quality of life (QoL). To reduce the risk of aminoglycoside-induced cochleotoxicity, patients' hearing thresholds are monitored (i.e., cochleotoxicity monitoring) when they are being treated with cochleotoxic aminoglycosides. Cochleotoxicity monitoring is performed to detect a significant threshold shift (STS) early and prevent further deterioration of hearing thresholds and avoid hearing loss which may end up affecting frequencies that are important for speech perception. When a STS or hearing loss is detected during cochleotoxicity monitoring, there are various intervention strategies that can be implemented by the treating medical personnel to avoid further deterioration of patient's hearing thresholds. These strategies may include discontinuing the aminoglycoside, changing the aminoglycoside to a less cochleotoxic alternative in the regimen or changing the frequency of administration of the aminoglycoside. This study, therefore, aimed to determine the effectiveness of different strategies used when a STS in hearing occurred during cochleotoxicity monitoring to prevent further deterioration in hearing thresholds. Methodology: A descriptive prospective repeated-measures design was used in this study. Patients who underwent RR/MDR-TB treatment with Kanamycin, a cochleotoxic aminoglycoside, at Brooklyn Chest Tuberculosis Hospital (BCH) between June to December 2016 were recruited to participate in the study. Only patients (n= 69) with normal hearing thresholds (i.e., pure tone average (PTA) at 500 Hz, 1 kHz and 2 kHz ≤ 25 dB HL) at baseline and age 18 – 55 years were included. Patients who were receiving two aminoglycosides, were retreatment patients or had active middle ear (ME) pathology were excluded from this study. Participants were sampled via a purposive sampling strategy. All audiological testing was performed in a sound-treated booth and participants underwent the following types of assessment; baseline, periodic monitoring, and diagnostic assessment (when indicated). The following tests were performed at baseline: case history, otoscopy (OT), tympanometry (TYMP), conventional pure tone audiometry (cPTA) including air conduction (AC) and bone conduction (BC), and ultra-high frequency audiometry (UHFA). Follow-up monitoring assessment occurred monthly if there was no significant change in hearing thresholds, and biweekly if an STS was detected. The ASHA criteria were used to determine STS. The degree of hearing loss was described as mild, moderate, moderately-severe, severe or profound and the type of hearing loss was either conductive, sensorineural, or mixed. Both descriptive and inferential (Chi-squared, Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis) statistical tests were used for data analysis. Results: A total of sixty-nine (69) patients who were undergoing treatment for RR/MDR-TB were recruited to participate in this study. Five participants dropped out of the study due to various reasons, therefore, leaving 64 participants in the study. There was 38 males and 26 females. The median age was 31 [range; 18 - 55] years old. An aminoglycoside-induced cochleotoxicity incidence of 90.6% (58/64) was found in this study. There were no statistically significant associations between the occurrence of STS and age (p = 0.487), sex (p = 0.329) and HIV status (p = 0.764). Three types of intervention strategies were used when a participant experienced an STS: (i) discontinue Kanamycin (Strategy A), (ii) modify the frequency of Kanamycin administration (Strategy B), (iii) and leave the regimen unchanged, i.e., no intervention (Strategy C). A smaller proportion of participants, 12 out of 33, experienced further deterioration of hearing thresholds after intervention strategy A (discontinue Kanamycin) was used, when compared to participants who underwent intervention strategies B and C, but the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.056). Conclusion: This study found a high incidence of cochleotoxicity among patients receiving Kanamycin treatment for RR/MDR-TB. The results showed that discontinuing Kanamycin led to fewer participants developing further deterioration of hearing thresholds, although not statistically significant. There were no statistically significant associations between the occurrence of STS and age, sex, and HIV status. This study had some limitations; only cochlear hearing loss was investigated, participants were not followed up beyond six months, and genetic testing was not performed. Nonetheless, this study revealed that fewer participants had further significant threshold shifts after discontinuing Kanamycin, and for those patients who still receive regimens containing aminoglycosides, these findings are relevant.

South Africa has one of the world’s highest burdens of TB, HIV/TB co-infection, and drug-resistant TB. Second-line TB treatment is less effective, more expensive, and more toxic than treatment for drug-sensitive TB. Nearly 1 in every 5 persons who starts treatment for drug-resistant TB in South Africa will die; 1 in every 3 persons who survives treatments experiences permanent, profound hearing loss. For decades there was little progress in TB research, however, and so treatment with old regimens continued despite safety concerns. In 2012 the US and European regulatory authorities approved a new drug, bedaquiline, but only for treatment in cases with no other options. In 2015, the South African Medicines Control Council approved bedaquiline for drug-resistant TB, but only a limited number of doses were approved in the 2016/2017 annual budget and the focus, again, was only for the patients who had no other options. In order to inform policy makers in planning and budgeting for drug-resistant TB treatment, the aim of this thesis was to determine whether the simple calculation that bedaquiline was too expensive relative to standard regimens using kanamycin was too simple. Particularly, given the high burden of adverse drug reactions (ADR) associated with kanamycin, would the inclusion of the cost and burden of ADR affect the incremental cost effectiveness ratio of a new treatment regimen where bedaquiline replaces kanamycin? Analysis of the national drug-resistant TB case register showed that mortality during second-line treatment was early, primarily in the first 6 months of treatment, even when patients do not have extensive drug resistance. HIV-positive patients not on anti-retroviral therapy (ART) at initiation of drug-resistant TB treatment have the highest risk of mortality. The high early mortality is a real risk that clinicians have to balance when deciding to initiate ART and effective second-line TB treatment both as quickly as possible. Daily injections coupled with taking more than 10 pills each day are a heavy burden for patient compliance, but also pose concerns in terms of overlapping and compounding toxicities; this burden was confirmed through a meta-analysis of the pooled frequency of adverse events among cohorts with at least 25% of the patients HIV-positive. A competing risk analysis of a cohort of drug-resistant TB patients from Johannesburg – addressing the reality that patients may not have experienced an ADR because they died rather than because they were at lower risk – indicated that HIV-infected patients who are not yet stable on ART and second-line TB treatment are at the highest risk of ADR. A Markov model built and parameterized using the data from the South African national TB programme indicates that bedaquiline for all drug-resistant TB led to a small gain in effectiveness at a cost that was under the costs of the drug itself, due to savings from daily injection visits. While cost-effective, it was not clear that South African policy makers needed to move beyond the offer of bedaquiline for patients with extensive drug resistance. However, the calculation, and the decision point, were different once the costs and disability associated with ADRs was included in the analysis. Bedaquiline-based regimens offer a cost-saving and more effective alternative to an injection-based regimen for drug-resistant TB patients treated in the public sector in South Africa.

<div><b>Rationale:</b> Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is associated with abnormal cortical development and is one of the most common drug-resistant epilepsies. The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway is a highly complex pathway </div><div>associated with cell proliferation, synaptic plasticity, neuroinflammation, and cortical development. Hyperactivation of this pathway has also been implicated in hyperexcitability, seizures, and accumulation of beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) through hyperphosphorylation of tau. Interestingly, Aβ and hyperphosphorylated tau have been reported in both rodent models and human patients of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and FCD however, the mechanisms through which this occurs are still yet to be defined. Therefore, to identify the possible link between Aβ and tau pathology in FCD, we determined the spatial distribution and protein levels of Aβ and phosphorylated tau (p-tau) along with mTOR signaling </div><div>molecules. We hypothesized that there would be presence of Aβ and tau pathology as well as an increase in Aβ and p-tau protein levels that would be correlated with hyperactivation of the mTOR and GSK3 signaling pathways in tissue biopsies from human FCD patients compared to brain tissues from non-epileptic (NE) individuals.</div><div><br></div><div><b>Methods:</b> Cortical brain samples surgically resected from patients with FCD were used and compared to NE samples surgically resected from glioblastoma patients with no history of seizures or epilepsy. Immunostaining was used to determine the distribution of phosphorylation of S6 (p-S6), a marker for mTOR activation, and NeuN, a marker for neurons, along with Aβ and p-tau. Additionally, western blotting (WB) was used to determine the levels of mTOR signaling through p-S6 and GSK3 (p-GSK) along with Aβ and p-tau.</div><div><br></div><div><b>Results:</b> We found cortical dyslamination, mTOR activation, p-tau, and Aβ accumulation in cortices of patients with FCD with drug-resistant epilepsy. However, we did not find a </div><div>significant difference in the protein levels of p-S6 (p = 0.422), p-GSK3 (p = 0.947), p-tau (p = 0.649), and Aβ (p = 0.852) in cortical tissue homogenates derived from FCD patients when compared to those of NE samples. Additionally, we did not find sex differences in the protein </div><div>levels of p-S6 (p = 0.401), p-GSK3 (p = 0.331), p-tau (p = 0.935), and Aβ (p = 0.526). There was no significant correlation between age and p-S6 (p = 0.920), age and p-GSK3 (p = 0.089), age and p-tau (p = 0.956), and age and Aβ (p = 0.889). Moreover, there was no significant correlation between mTOR activation (p-S6), Aβ (p = 0.586) and p-tau (p = 0.059) nor GSK3 activation (p-GSK3), Aβ (p = 0.326), and p-tau (p = 0.715). Lastly, there was no significant correlation within the mTOR and GSK3 pathway activation within the same patients (p = 0.602).</div><div><br></div><div><b>Conclusion:</b> These data suggest that mTOR hyperactivation occurs alongside the presence of Aβ and tau pathology. However, several unknown factors such as medical and medication history may be altering the expression or suppression of these proteins. Additionally, there may be alternative pathways that crosstalk with mTOR signaling therefore influencing Aβ and tau pathology in FCD patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. Further investigation will need to be conducted to understand the detailed mechanisms through which Aβ and tau pathology occur in </div><div>FCD.</div>

No description available.

Purpose While epilepsy surgery has been shown to reduce seizure frequency and severity and even cures seizures in children with drug-resistant epilepsy, data from middle-income countries (MIC) are lacking. Method This study is a retrospective review of children with drug-resistant epilepsy who underwent surgical treatment at Red Cross War Memorial Children's Hospital (RCWMCH) between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2021 (HREC: 140/2020). Results During the 21-year study period, 60 patients underwent epilepsy surgery for drugresistant epilepsy. The median age of the children was seven years (IQR 4.81-10.27years) at the time of surgery, with a male predominance of 33 patients. The most common surgical procedure performed was an anterior temporal lobectomy for temporal lobe epilepsy in 19 cases (31.7%), followed by peri-insular hemispherotomy in 9 cases (15.0%) and frontal lobectomy in 8 cases (13.3%). Of the 60 patients, complete records were available for 55 patients noting complications in 11 (20.0%), of which 4 cases (7.3%) had major complications. Notably, 2 patients (3.6%) had new-onset psychiatric symptoms. The long term outcomes after surgery showed 1-year seizure freedom in 32 patients (58.2%); among these, 21 patients (38.2%) could stop ASM one year after surgery, 17 patients (30.9%) had a recurrence of their seizures, and three had to restart ASM after 2-3 years. Eight patients (14.5%) required repeat surgery. The one-year-Modified Engel scoring for the study population was: 1-A in 52.7%, I-B in 3.6%, I-C in 1.8%, II-A in 15.8%, III-A in 10.9%, IV-A in 3.6% and IV-B in 10.9%. The most common histological finding in anterior temporal lobectomy (ATL) was focal cortical dysplasia (FCD), found in 11 patients (57.9%). The periinsular hemispherotomy (PIH) cases had equal numbers of FCD and Rasmussen's encephalitis in 4 patients (44.4%). The number of FCD in this series is much higher than in international data. Conclusion Epilepsy surgery is an effective and attainable intervention for drug-resistant epilepsy in the paediatric population despite limited resources and challenging aetiological profiles. Low complication rates were comparable to international data, with good seizure freedom outcomes.

The purpose of the study was to investigate and describe the experiences of a mobile injection team for multi drug resistant-tuberculosis outpatients, and to design and recommend a mobile injection team guideline based on the experiences of the team members in Ugu District, KwaZulu-Natal and to indicate the support that the MIT require. Phenomenological research was conducted. Convenient census sampling was used as all the seven members of the Ugu District mobile injection team were included. The inclusion criteria was at least six months’ working experience with MDR-TB patients in a mobile injection team at Ugu District, be an enrolled nurse registered with the South African Nursing Council as an enrolled nurse and must have an annual practicing certificate, or be a TB assistant, be willing to participate in the study and be located at the decentralised and satellite site. Data were collected through individual in-depth interviews with the participants. Data were analysed using Giorgi’s method of data analysis. The research findings revealed four broad themes (the perceptions held by the team, challenges, available support and needs to promote the service) and 73 sub-themes. The findings of the study indicate that the MDR-TB outreach injection teams experience many challenges in the community and need to be supported by their management in order to provide quality care to the patients. This study contributes to the development of guidelines to assist the mobile injection teams to provide quality patient care and effective service delivery. Based on the findings, the recommendation is that an intervention study be performed to compare the utilisation of the mobile MDR-TB injection team after implementing the recommendations made and the guidelines developed in this study / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

This quantitative, descriptive study investigated factors that contributed to TB patients registered in four Tembisa clinics in 2001, defaulting treatment. An interview schedule with closed and open-ended questions was used for 30 patients who could be traced who had interrupted treatment. The reasons for treatment interruption were related to socio-economic, TB policy-related and health care worker-related factors. The findings illustrate that TB management requires a multi-sectoral approach and joint efforts to tackle the disease that continues to kill people even though it is curable. / Health Studies / M.A. (Health Studies)

The study investigated the knowledge levels of clients on long-term tuberculosis (TB) treatment at Kwekwe General Hospital, Zimbabwe. A quantitative, descriptive research design was chosen and data was collected using a structured questionnaire with a convenience sample of 60 clients on TB treatment and 10 professional nurses. The major findings of the study were that although clients had some knowledge about their condition, there was a lack of knowledge regarding critical aspects such as information on drug-resistant TB and the Directly Observed Therapy Short Course. The professional nurses experienced constraints such as insufficient time for appropriate health education and home visits. Based on the study findings and conclusions, several recommendations were made. / Health Studies / Thesis(M.A(Health Studies))

KwaZulu-Natal has been ranked as having the fourth highest incidence of transmitted Multiple Drug Resistant-Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) in sub-Saharan Africa. Substantial literature exists indicating the permanent damage that MDR-TB medication has on hearing abilities. The purpose of this study was to describe the hearing function of adults on long term MDR-TB treatment from Murchison Hospital MDR-TB unit in the Ugu District in rural KwaZulu-Natal. The primary aim of the study was to review the possible changes in hearing function in a group of adults on long-term treatment for MDR-TB. Secondly, the study aimed to estimate the number of adults who may present with changes following MDR-TB treatment and establish if relationships exist between the audiological findings and factors such as age and gender. The design of the study was a retrospective comparative data review of 68 patient records, all of which underwent audiological investigations from the start of MDR-TB treatment over a five-month period. The study made use of descriptive and inferential statistics to analyse the data. Specific inferential statistical analysis included analysis of covariance as well as regression analysis. Results from the study showed changes in hearing function in Distortion Product Otoacoustic Emissions (DPOAEs) and Pure Tone Audiometry (PTA) results at all five audiological sessions and across a range of frequencies. 84% of the total sample presented with overall refer readings for DPOAEs and 98.53% of the group of adults presented with criteria indicative of ototoxic hearing loss, specifically a bilateral mild-profound sloping SNHL on clinical PTA results. In the total sample of patient records reviewed in this study, all 68 records showed a change in hearing function, be that changes in DPOAE function and/or changes in PTA thresholds, following long-term treatment for MDR-TB. Variations in the effects of gender and ear difference were minimal and non-significant in all results. Similar presentation, to ototoxic hearing loss, of other degenerative conditions exists; however these conditions were accounted for as exclusion criteria in this study. Therefore the only remaining cause of possible hearing deficit was that of ototoxicity. The study provided valuable data regarding hearing function in a population of adults on long-term MDR-TB treatment in South Africa. Furthermore, the study has highlighted the need for the establishment of standardised audiological monitoring programmes sensitive to ototoxic hearing loss, within the South African context where the incidence of Tuberculosis (TB) and MDR-TB is reportedly high.