Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Entomology / Thomas W. Phillips / Robert "Jeff" J. Whitworth / Dry-cured ham is protected from infestations of Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) (Sarcoptiformes: Acaridae) with the fumigant methyl bromide. Developing feasible alternatives to methyl bromide is necessary due to the phase out of methyl bromide. The effectiveness of food-safe compounds for preventing infestations of T. putrescentiae on dry-cured hams was evaluated by dipping ham pieces in solutions of various food additives. Propylene glycol (1, 2-propanediol), lard, ethoxyquin and butylated hydroxytoluene prevented or significantly reduced mite population growth. A combination of carrageenan + propylene glycol alginate + 40% propylene glycol was effective in reducing mite numbers on treated whole-aged hams compared with untreated hams. Dose/response tests with twelve registered residual insecticides were conducted to assess contact toxicity to T. putrescentiae. Three of these insecticides were evaluated for persistence over a 2-month period on different surfaces. Commercial formulations of deltamethrin plus chlorpyrifos-methyl, chlorfenapyr, and malathion showed promising results for contact toxicity against T. putriscentiae. Chlorfenapyr applied to metal, concrete, and wood resulted in 100% mortality of treated ham mites for up to 8 weeks. The effect of high and low temperatures on mortality of T. putrescentiae was studied in the laboratory. Groups of 10 eggs and groups of a mixture of 40 adults and nymphs were separately exposed to several high and low temperatures, ranging from +35 to 45°C and from −20 to +5°C, for several time periods. Eggs were found to be more tolerant to both high and low temperatures compared with adults and nymphs. Results showed that high temperatures from 40-45°C killed all T. putrescentiae eggs, adults, and nymphs within 4-1 d, while −10°C or lower killed all the same stages in less than 1 d. Combinations of the fumigant sulfuryl fluoride (SF) applied under high temperatures ranging from 25-40ºC, were studied to determine the highest temperature, shortest exposure time, and the lowest value of a concentration-by-time product (CTP) of SF against T. putrescentiae. Results showed that complete control of all life stages of T. putrescentiae was achieved at 40ºC with SF. More than one day of exposure was required to kill adults and nymphs and eggs at 40ºC at a CTP close to the EPA labeled rate of 1500 gh.m⁻³. Results indicated that adults and nymphs were more susceptible to SF compared to eggs. This study focused on investigating different control methods for T. putrescentiae in dry-cured ham facilities and most of examined techniques are preventive, although some of them can be applied as remedial methods after mite infestations are noticed.

Master of Science / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / Barry J. Bradford / Wet corn gluten feed (WCGF) is commonly included in lactation rations for dairy cattle. Research at Kansas State University has shown that increasing WCGF inclusion decreased ruminal pH. Lack of adequate particle size may result in this decrease and can impact efficiencies, animal health and longevity. A study was conducted to look at the effects of feeding WCGF while maintaining > 10% of particles > 19 mm across diets. We hypothesized that as WCGF increased, DMI and milk yield would increase while ruminal pH would be maintained. Seven ruminally-cannulated, lactating Holstein cows were used in an incomplete 4 × 4 Latin square design with treatments of 0, 12.4, 24.5 or 35.1% WCGF across 4 periods of 21 d. Alfalfa hay was used to maintain particle size. All diets met particle size goals; however, as WCGF increased, the proportion of particles > 19 mm decreased (P = 0.01) and cows changed their sorting behavior in favor of particles > 19 mm (P = 0.03) and against particles on the bottom screen (P < 0.01) and pan (P = 0.01). As WCGF increased, ruminal pH and ECM/DMI were not affected, yet DMI (P = 0.02) and milk yield (P = 0.02) increased quadratically. Milk protein, lactose and fat concentrations were not affected; however, milk protein (P = 0.004; linear) and lactose (P = 0.02; quadratic) yields increased. In a separate study, active dry yeast (ADY) products, commonly used in the dairy industry to support ruminal health, were evaluated for product guarantees and effects of storage and storage medium. Few products received through normal distribution met product guarantees (1 of 6; experiment 1) and after 3 mo of storage cell viability dropped significantly (P < 0.01). In the second experiment, products were stored in ground corn or in a vitamin-trace mineral mix (VTM). Depressions in viability caused by high-temperature storage were partially mitigated when ADY products were stored with a VTM. Although both mediums resulted in lower cell viabilities after storage at 40ºC, VTM cell viabilities were significantly (P = 0.02) higher than ground corn.

Master of Science / Food Science / Kelly J. K. Getty / Dry-processing environments are particularly challenging to clean and sanitize because water introduced into systems not designed for wet cleaning can favor growth and establishment of pathogenic microorganisms such as Salmonella. The objective was to determine the efficacy of isopropyl alcohol quaternary ammonium (IPAQuat) formula and carbon dioxide (CO[subscript]2) sanitizer system for eliminating Enterococcus faecium and Salmonella on food contact surfaces. Coupons of stainless steel and conveyor belting material used in dry-processing environments were spot-inoculated in the center of 5 × 5 cm coupons with approximately 7.0 log CFU/ml of E. faecium and up to 10 log CFU/ml of a six-serotype composite of Salmonella and subjected to IPAQuat-CO[subscript]2 sanitation treatments using exposure times of 30 s, 1 or 5 min. After sanitation treatments, wet coupons were swabbed for post-treatment survivors. Preliminary experiments included coupons which were soiled with a flour and water solution prior to inoculation and subsequent sanitation treatments. For the main study, inoculated surfaces were soiled with a breadcrumb flour blend and allowed to sit on the lab bench for a minimum of 16 h before sanitation. Preliminary results showed that IPAQuat-CO[subscript]2 sanitizing system was effective in reducing approximately 3.0 logs of E. faecium and Salmonella from clean and soiled surfaces after 1 min exposure but higher initial inoculum levels were needed to demonstrate >5 log reductions. For the main study, pre-treatment Salmonella populations were approximately 7.0 log CFU/25 cm[superscript]2 and post-treatment survivors were 1.3, < 0.7 (detection limit), and < 0.7 log CFU/25 cm[superscript]2 after 30 s, 1 or 5 min sanitizer exposures, respectively, for both clean and soiled surfaces. Treatment with IPAQuat-CO[subscript]2 sanitation system using 30 s sanitizer exposures resulted in 5.7 log CFU/25 cm[superscript]2 reductions whereas, greater than 6.0 log CFU/25 cm[superscript]2 reductions were observed for sanitizer exposures of 1 and 5 min. The IPAQuat-CO[subscript]2 sanitation system reduced 6 logs CFU/25 cm[superscript]2 of Salmonella with sanitizer exposure times of at least 1 min. The IPAQuat-CO[subscript]2 system would, therefore, be an effective sanitation system to eliminate potential contamination from Salmonella on food contact surfaces and have application in facilities that process dry ingredients or low-moisture products.

Dry abrasive blasting is a commonly used surface preparation operation by many process industries to clean up metallic surfaces and achieve surface finishes suitable for future adhesion. Abrasives used in this process can be recyclable or expendable. This study was undertaken to evaluate the performance of three recyclable abrasives: garnet, barshot and steel grit/shot in terms of productivity (area cleaned per unit time), consumption (amount of abrasive used per unit area cleaned) and uncontrolled total particulate matter (TPM) emission factors (in terms of mass of pollutant emitted per unit area cleaned and mass of pollutant emitted per unit mass of abrasive consumed). Though there have been various attempts in the past to evaluate the performance of these abrasives, there has not been a streamlined approach to evaluate these parameters in the commonly used range of process conditions, or to identify and model the influences of key process variables on these performance parameters. The first step in this study was to evaluate the performance of these three abrasives in blasting painted steel panels under enclosed blasting conditions and using USEPA recommended protocols. The second step was to model the influences of blast pressure and abrasive feed rate, two most critical parameters on productivity, consumption and emission factors. Two and three dimensional models were obtained using multiple linear regression techniques to express productivity, consumption and TPM emission factors in terms of blast pressure and abrasive feed rate. Barshot was found to have high productivities over all and steel grit/shot demonstrated the least emission potential at almost all of the tested pressure and feed rate conditions. The data will help fill the gaps in literature currently available for dry abrasive blasting performance. The models obtained will help industries, the research community and the regulatory agencies to make accurate estimates of the performance parameters. Estimating productivity and consumption will help industries identify best management practices by optimizing the process conditions to achieve high productivity and low consumption rates. Emission factor determination will help in reducing the emissions to the atmosphere by choosing process conditions corresponding to minimum emissions. The performance parameters once optimized can result in reduction in material, labor, energy, emission and disposal costs, lower resource utilization and hence reduction in overall life cycle costs of dry abrasive process. The developed models will help industries in making environmentally preferable purchases thereby promoting source reduction options. PM emissions estimated using the models presented here will aid studies on health risk associated with inhalation of atmospheric PM.

Resumo: O experimento foi conduzido na UNESP - Campus de Botucatu, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos ao acaso num arranjo fatorial com três cultivares de Brachiaria brizantha (Marandu, Xaraés e BRS Piatã) e duas alturas de resíduo (15 e 25 cm), no total de seis tratamentos com quatro repetições (parcelas de 20 m2). O período de avaliação foi de um ano (01/12/2007 a 10/12/2008), com a realização de oito cortes, sendo três na primavera, três no verão, um no outono e um no inverno. A produção de massa seca (MS) da Xaraés foi maior no verão e na primavera em relação à Marandu. No somatório do ano a produtividade de MS da Xaraés foi 27,07% superior à Marandu, alcançando valor elevado (20.023 kg/ha), o que demonstra o potencial de utilização deste genótipo, principalmente em sistemas de produção de bovinos de corte mais intensivos. A produção de MS da Piatã nas estações do ano foi semelhante à Marandu, totalizando 17.572 e 15.757 kg/ha, respectivamente. Os dados de produção indicam que a Piatã apresentou a melhor distribuição da forragem produzida ao longo do ano. A produção de forragem das cultivares foi maior na altura do resíduo de 15 cm no verão e inverno, e não diferiu nas alturas de manejo no outono e primavera, demonstrando exigências diferentes de manejo do capim ao longo do ano. Os resultados obtidos confirmam a recomendação e a importância da cultivar Piatã como alternativa de utilização e diversificação das pastagens nos sistemas produtivos. / Abstract: The experiment was conducted in the School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science of UNESP - Botucatu Campus. The experimental design was a complete randomized blocks in a factorial arrangement with three cultivars of Brachiaria brizantha (Marandu, Xaraés and BRS Piatã) and two stubble heights (15 and 25 cm), in the total six treatments with four replications (20 m² plots). The evaluation period was of one year (12/01/2007 to 12/10/2008) with eight cuts: three in the spring, three in the summer, one in the fall and one in the winter. The production of dry matter (DM) of Xaraés in summer and spring were higher than Marandu with a total of 27.07% higher DM than Marandu. The total DM production was 20,023 kg/ha, demonstrating the potential of use of the Xaraés cultivar, especially in more intensive systems of beef cattle production. DM production of Piatã in the seasons was similar to Marandu, totalizing 17,572 and 15,757 kg/ha, respectively. The production data indicate that Piatã cultivar had the best distribution of forage produced during the year. The forage production of cultivars was higher in the stubble height of 15 cm in summer and winter, and did not differ for two heights of management in the fall and spring, showing different requirements of grass management during the year. The results confirm the recommendation and the importance of Piatã cultivar as an alternative of use and diversification of pastures in the production systems. / Orientador: Ciniro Costa / Coorientador: Paulo Roberto de Lima Meirelles / Banca: Heraldo César Gonçalves / Banca: Roberto Antonio Rodella / Banca: Cacilda Borges do Valle / Banca: Valdo Rodrigues Hering / Doutor

Ce travail de thèse est dédié au développement d’un modèle numérique prédictif du comportement de tissu sec soumis à l’impact à haute vitesse. La capacité d’un modèle numérique à prédire au plus juste des performances balistiques d’un tissu est étroitement liée à la bonne représentation des énergies en jeu et de la dynamique de rupture des plis. Parmi les différentes stratégies adoptées pour modéliser un tissu, les modèles mésoscopiques sont les plus populaires du fait de leur capacité à représenter fidèlement l’évolution de l’impact combinée à un coût de calcul raisonnable ; les torons sont alors traités comme des milieux continus.Pour représenter un ensemble de fibres disjointes comme un milieu continu, un modèle constitutif approprié est nécessaire. Celui généralement adopté est capable de bien représenter les propriétés longitudinales d’un toron mais limitatif pour représenter le comportement de sa section droite. Récemment, différents travaux ont démontré l’importance de la mécanique liée à la section droite d’un toron dans la rupture des tissus. Elle joue un rôle majeur pour aboutir à un modèle numérique prédictif. L’objet de cette thèse est de développer une nouvelle loi constitutive capable de surpasser les limites du modèle linéaire élastique classique tout en maintenant une bonne représentation des propriétés longitudinales du toron et un coût de calcul acceptable.La première étape a été de comprendre les phénomènes physiques et de quantifier en particulier les effets liés à la section droite du toron sur les propriétés balistiques d’un tissu. Pour répondre à cette question, deux modèles numériques à l’échelle microscopique d’un toron de Kevlar soumis à l’impact transverse ont été développés. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que la mécanique de la section droite a des répercussions sur l’initialisation de la rupture du fil mettant en jeu des énergies significatives pendant la première phase d’un impact. La nécessité de prendre en compte les aspects physiques liés à la section droite d’un toron a été finalement confirmée.A partir des résultats précédents, un nouveau modèle constitutif de toron adapté à des applications dynamiques a été développé. Une formulation hyperélastique, précédemment utilisée pour des analyses statiques a été étendue au cas de l’impact et une nouvelle approche multi-échelle a été proposée pour la détermination des paramètres matériaux. La validation de la nouvelle loi a été faite en comparant les résultats obtenus à l’échelle mésoscopique (toron) avec ceux obtenus par les analyses à la micro-échelle (fibre). L’approche proposée est capable de reproduire l’évolution de la section droite du fil pendant l’impact en gardant la bonne représentation de ses propriétés longitudinales.Par la suite, le modèle de toron proposé a été implémenté au niveau du tissu. Les résultats ont confirmé les observations faites à l’échelle du toron. Le modèle de tissu composé par des torons hyperélastiques est capable de représenter correctement la dynamique d’impact , l’évolution des énergies en jeu et la rupture du tissu. La stabilité numérique du modèle a également pu être appréciée.Finalement, le modèle mésoscopique de toron proposé permet une bonne représentation du comportement dynamique et appréhension de la rupture. Il devient ainsi un outil pratique et efficace pour la prédiction des performances balistiques de tissus. / The current thesis work focused on the development of a predictive numerical model of dry fabrics under high velocity impact.A mature bibliography exists on the subject. The impact phenomenon can be essentially resumed as an energy transfer between the colliding object and the fabric layers. The correct prediction of the fabric ballistic performance by a numerical model is related to the correct representation of the fabric energy evolution and its failure dynamic. Different numerical strategies have been proposed to model a fabric under ballistic impact. Mesoscopic numerical models resulted to be the most popular since they provide a realistic representation of the phenomenon for a reasonable computational cost. This is possible thanks to the main assumption of treating yarns as continuous media.In order to represent a discrete fiber bundle as a continuum an appropriate constitutive behavior have to be formulated. The universally adopted constitutive law accurately describes yarns longitudinal properties but it is limited in the representation of their transverse mechanical behavior. Recent studies have demonstrated how this last point is intrinsically related to fabrics failure and multilayer textiles response, then its correct representation becomes a critical point for an accurate model. The goal of the current work has been to provide a new constitutive model which overcome the limitation of the classic linear elastic approach while keeping unaltered its advantages, i.e. low computational costs and accurate description of yarn longitudinal behavior.The first step of this dissertation was to quantify the yarn cross section effects over textile ballistic properties and the phenomena related to this aspect. In order to provide an answer, two microscopic numerical studies of a single Kevlar yarn transversely impacted have been presented. Results showed how yarn transverse mechanical behavior has a role in failure initialization, while its energetic contribution to the global energy balance is not negligible during the first phases of an impact. The importance of a correct representation of the yarn transverse behavior for a predictive fabric numerical model was then confirmed.Starting from the previous microscopic observations, a consistent yarn continuum model for impact applications has been proposed. An hyperelastic formulation previously developed for static applications has been extended to impact analyses and a novel multiscale approach for the determination of all the material parameters has been introduced. The validation of the hyperelastic approach has been performed comparing the results with those obtained at the microscale. Compared to the classical approach, the introduced constitutive law is actually able to reproduce the evolution of the yarn cross section during the impact while keeping a correct representation of the yarn longitudinal properties. Moreover, the proposed formulation provides new physical measurement to exploit the physic behind the impact and new possibilities in terms of failure modelisation.In the final part of the dissertation, the proposed yarn continuum model is introduced at the fabric level. Results confirmed the observation performed at the yarn level. The proposed hyperelastic approach is able to correctly represent the impact dynamic and fabric energies trends. Moreover, it provides more stability and a better representation of the fabric failure compared to linear elastic approach. The proposed hyperelastic constitutive law and the linear elastic one can be adopted for different portion of the same yarn without occurring into model instabilities and providing accurate results.The yarn mesoscopic model developed in the current work offers new possibilities in terms of failure modelisation and post processing tools. These could be used to develop more accurate fabric model and exploit the phenomena behind fabrics and yarns failure mechanic.

<p>Dry Powder inhalers (DPIs) have been one of the most promising developments in pulmonary drug delivery systems. In general, DPIs are more effective than systemic administrations and convenient to use. However, delivering high-dose antibiotics through a DPI is still a challenge because high powder load may need a very large inhaler or increase the incidence of local adverse effects. Spray drying has been increasingly applied to produce DPI formulations for high-dose antibiotics; nevertheless, many spray-dried particles are amorphous and physically unstable during storage, particularly under the humid environment. </p> <p> </p> <p>My research focuses on addressing critical challenges in physical stability of DPIs for spray-dried high-dose antibiotics. The effects of moisture-induced crystallization on physical stability and aerosol performance of spray-dried amorphous Ciprofloxacin DPI formulations stored at different humidity conditions were studied. Our study not only provided a mechanistic understanding in the impact of crystallization on aerosol performance but also developed novel approaches for improving stability of spray-dried formulations used in DPI.</p> <p> </p> <p>Our work has shown that recrystallization of amorphous spray-dried Ciprofloxacin led to significant changes in aerosol performance of DPIs upon storage, which cause critical quality and safety concerns. These challenges have been solved through co-spray-drying Ciprofloxacin with either excipient such as leucine or synergistic antibiotic like Colistin. Co-spray-drying Ciprofloxacin with Colistin not only improved physical and aerosol stability but also enhanced antibacterial activity which is a great advantage for treating ‘difficult to cure’ respiratory infections caused by multidrug resistant bacteria.</p> <p> </p> <p>My research work is a sincere effort to maximize the utility and efficacy of high-dose DPI, an effective delivery tool for treating severe resistant bacterial respiratory infections.</p>

A importância dos circuitos de moagem nos setores de mineração, pelotização e cimenteiro - seja por determinar o desempenho de processos subsequentes, seja por sua significativa parcela nos custos operacionais - encorajou o desenvolvimento de extensivos estudos na área. Dois campos continuam, contudo, pouco explorados: a moagem a seco e a moagem fina de concentrados (ou remoagem). Por outro lado, os circuitos de cominuição têm ganhado gradativamente mais importância ao longo dos anos para o mercado de minério de ferro, devido ao aprofundamento das cavas em operação e, por consequência, ao tratamento de minérios mais compactos e com menores teores de ferro. Por si só, essas novas características geraram a necessidade de moer produtos cada vez mais finos e de etapas adicionais de concentração e pelotização. Nesse ínterim, a moagem fina ganhou extrema importância. Este trabalho se concentrou no desenvolvimento de um método de ensaio de laboratório para a previsão do consumo específico de energia na etapa de remoagem a seco, adequado à aplicação em minérios de ferro itabiríticos. Foram investigadas diversas variáveis que podem interferir nos resultados de laboratório e definidas as melhores condições para os ensaios. Em seguida, os resultados dos ensaios foram confrontados com dados de uma operação de remoagem a seco industrial. O método proposto apresentou boa aproximação com os resultados industriais em relação à geração de finos (porcentagem passante em 45 ?m). Em relação à geração de área superficial - parâmetro importante para a pelotização -, os desvios foram maiores devido à sua correlação com a composição mineralógica para as misturas investigadas. Contudo, a relação entre a geração de área superficial com as diferentes mineralogias para o minério de ferro, especialmente o de Carajás, demanda maiores investigações. A relação linear proposta por Rittinger entre a geração de superfície e o consumo específico de energia na moagem também pode ser comprovada para a moagem a seco. / Studies on grinding area are vast due to its importance for mining, pelletizing and cement industry: grinding operations define both the throughput of following processes and operational costs. However, there are two grinding processes that lack deeper understanding: dry and fine grinding (re-grinding). On the other hand, as rich iron ore deposits get depleted and the necessity of treating more complex ores increases, the necessity of re-grinding concentrates prior further steps of concentration grows. Therefore, fine grinding of iron ores is progressively gaining importance. This study focused on the development of a bench scale test to predict the specific energy consumption of dry re-grinding circuits for iron ore. The variables that can affect grinding tests results were evaluated and the best conditions were defined. In sequence, the results of a series of lab tests were compared with data from an industrial circuit. The proposed test presented good correlation with industrial results regarding the generation of fines (percentage passing 0.045 mm). Regarding new surface generation - parameter of great importance for ore pelletizing - the differences between lab and industrial results were bigger, due the correlation of this parameter with the mineralogical composition of the samples investigated. However, the correlation between surface generation and mineralogical composition for iron ores, especially ores form Carajás complex, demands deeper investigations. Moreover, the linear relationship between energy consumption and surface area generation, as proposed by Rittinger was also observed for dry grinding.

Nesse estudo, explorei aspectos da ecologia evolutiva da interação planta-polinizador, ao avaliar o fenótipo floral sob pressões seletivas geograficamente divergentes. Para isso utilizei a interação entre abelhas coletoras de óleo e Krameria (Krameriaceae) como sistema modelo. A tese abrange a história natural do sistema e manipulações experimentais in situ que deram suporte à investigação sobre integração floral no contexto multipopulacional. No primeiro capítulo, estudei a biologia da polinização de Krameria tomentosa, listando as espécies de visitantes florais associadas a suas flores. Assim, mostrei que essa espécie depende de seus polinizadores para o sucesso na polinização e que a maioria das abelhas coletoras de óleo associada a suas flores pertence ao gênero Centris (Centridini). No entanto, observei uma alta frequência de abelhas coletoras de pólen nessa espécie que parecem contribuir com a manutenção da polinização na população. No segundo capítulo, mostrei que há uma variação geográfica na assembleia de polinizadores de K. grandiflora que inclui diferentes comportamentos e ajustes à morfologia floral da espécie. Desse modo, testei a significância funcional das três estruturas especializadas das flores de Krameria (cálice conspícuo, pétalas petaloides e elaióforos) em dois cenários contrastantes de ajuste entre a arquitetura floral e o polinizador. No entanto, diferenças não foram detectadas. O ajuste mecânico que os elaióforos provêm parece essencial para o sucesso na polinização no grupo. No terceiro capítulo, demonstrei que populações similares no padrão de correlação de seus caracteres florais, apresentam composição e diversidade funcional de polinizadores semelhantes, sugerindo que diferenças na morfologia combinadas à abundância de polinizadores influenciam o padrão de integração fenotípica. Portanto, esses resultados mostram uma situação em que a variação geográfica na assembleia de polinizadores parece promover a diferenciação da estrutura correlacional do fenótipo floral / In this study, I investigate some aspects of the evolutionary ecology of a plant-pollinator interaction, by evaluating the floral phenotype under geographically divergent selective forces. For this, I used the interaction between oil-collecting bees and Krameria (Krameriaceae) as a system model. This thesis comprises the natural history of the studied system and manipulative experiments in situ to support the investigation on the phenotypic integration in a multipopulation context. In the first chapter, I studied the pollination biology of Krameria tomentosa, listing the flower visitor species associated to its flowers. Thus, I showed that this species depends on their pollinator for pollination success and that most oil-collecting bees recorded belongs to Centris genus (Centridini). However, I observed a high frequency of pollen-collecting bees on this species which might contribute to pollination maintenance in the population. In the second chapter, I showed that there is a geographic variation in the pollinator assemblage of K. grandiflora which includes different behavior and matching to Krameria floral architecture. Thus, I tested the functional significance of the three specialized structures of Krameria flowers (showy calyx, petaloid petals and elaiophores) in two contrasting pollinator-matching scenarios; however, no differences were detected. The mechanical fit provided by the elaiophores might be a keystone for the pollination success in Krameria. O ajuste mecânico que os elaióforos provêm parece essencial para o sucesso na polinização no grupo. In the third chapter, I demonstrated that populations with similar patterns of floral trait correlation comprise similar pollinator composition and functional diversity, suggesting that differences in pollinator morphology combined to abundance influences the pattern of phenotypic integration. Therefore, these results show a condition in which geographic variation in pollinator assemblage might provide divergence in the phenotypic correlation structure

O presente estudo tem como objetivo avaliar o processo de purificação do biodiesel por adsorção, utilizando adsorventes alternativos de baixo custo, comparando a eficiência dos adsorventes selecionados com o método de purificação convencional (lavagem aquosa). Para tanto, foram realizados testes de triagem de materiais provenientes de resíduos industriais, avaliando a capacidade desses materiais na remoção de glicerol e recuperação mássica. Dentre os adsorventes testados, a cinza da casca de arroz e a argila chamo-te apresentaram melhores resultados, juntamente com a resina comercial Amberlite BD10DRY, utilizada como parâmetro de comparação nos ensaios de purificação por via seca. Por meio de planejamento experimental composto de face centrada 22, foi avaliado o efeito da concentração de cada adsorvente selecionado (2, 5 e 8% m/v) e a temperatura (30, 40 e 50 °C) nas variáveis respostas: percentuais de recuperação mássica e adsorção de glicerol. De acordo com a análise estatística foi possível estabelecer as condições operacionais para cada adsorvente que maximizam as variáveis respostas. As condições ótimas estabelecidas foram: concentração de adsorventes (3,7; 2,4 e 2,1% m/v) e temperatura (30, 45 e 30 °C) para a resina Amberlite BD10DRY, argila chamote e cinza de casca de arroz, respectivamente. Tais condições maximizaram a remoção de glicerol (entre 76 - 80%) sem ocasionar perdas elevadas de massa do adsorvato (3,0 - 6,5%). Para validar a metodologia de purificação por via seca, o procedimento foi testado em amostra de biodiesel etílico obtido em escala de laboratório, a partir de óleo de palmiste utilizando como catalisador óxido de nióbio impregnado com sódio. A purificação do biodiesel por adsorção foi realizada adotando as condições otimizadas, adotando a técnica de lavagem aquosa como método de comparação. Todos os métodos de purificação foram eficientes quanto à remoção de glicerol (abaixo do limite estipulado de 0,02% em massa) e todas as amostras purificadas apresentaram elevados teores de ésteres etílicos (EE%) variando entre 99,18% e 99,71% e valores de viscosidade cinemática (3,0-6,0 mm2/s) e densidade (850-900 kg/m3) dentro dos limites especificados pelas normas de qualidade estabelecidas pela Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás natural e Biocombustíveis (ANP) Resolução 45/2014. Entretanto, apenas as amostras purificadas por via seca utilizando argila chamote e cinza de casca de arroz apresentaram teores de monoacilglicerol e diacilglicerol dentro dos valores estipulados (0,70% para MAG e 0,20% para DAG). Estudos complementares da estrutura e composição dos adsorventes Cinza de casca de arroz e Argila Chamote foram efetuados para melhor compreender suas propriedades como agentes de adsorção. A capacidade de adsorção desses materiais está relacionada com o elevado conteúdo de sílica, como demonstrado pela difração de raios-x e análises de espectroscopia no infravermelho. Desta forma, resíduos de baixo custo e de elevada disponibilidade como argila chamote e cinza de casca de arroz, podem ser considerados como materiais promissores para serem usados em processos de purificação de biodiesel por via seca. / The present study aims at assessing the purification of ethyl biodiesel by dry washing using alternative low-cost sorbents, taking the efficiency demonstrated by a conventional purification method (wet washing) as a control parameter. Screening tests carried out with different sorbents (commercial and industrial wastes) revealed that rice husk ash and chamotte clay showed better results, along with the commercial resin Amberlite BD10DRY, used here as standard sorbent for dry washing. For the selected sorbents, a combined effect of sorbent concentration (2, 5, and 8 wt%) and temperature (30, 40 and 50° C) on the mass recovered and glycerol removal was studied using the response surface methodology. A 22 full-factorial central composite design was employed for the experimental design and analysis of the results. According to the statistical analysis it was possible to establish the operating conditions for each sorbent that maximize both responses. The optimum conditions were established at: concentration of sorbent (3.7; 2.4 and 2.1% m/v) and temperature (30, 45 and 30° C) for the resin Amberlite BD10DRY, chamotte clay and rice husk ash, respectively. Such conditions maximized the removal of glycerol (between 76-80%) and minimized the loss of the adsorbate mass (3.0-6.5%). Under optimal conditions, the sorbents were used for purifying ethyl biodiesel samples obtaining at laboratory scale from palm kernel oil using as catalyst niobium oxide impregnated with sodium. Both procedures (dry and wet washing) were quite efficient in removing glycerol (below the required limit of 0.02%) and all the purified samples showed high percentages of ethyl esters (EE%) ranging from 99.18% and 99.71% and values of kinematic viscosity (3.0-6.0 mm2/s) and density (850-900 kg/m3) within the limits specified by the quality standards established by the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) Resolution 45/2014. However, only the alternatives sorbents (chamotte clay and rice husk ash) were also able to remove monoacylglycerols (MG) and diacylglycerols (DG), thus their structures and compositions were further analyzed to better understand their properties as sorbents. The adsorption capacity of these sorbents is related to their high silica contents, as it was demonstrated by the X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy analyses. Thus low-cost wastes such as chamotte clay and rice husk ash with high-availability features can be considered as a promising materials to be used in biodiesel purification processes by wet washing.