Dry Powder Inhalers (DPIs) have great potential in pulmonary drug delivery; the granular powder, used as active ingredient in DPIs, is ozone friendly and the operation of DPIs ensures coordination between dose release and patient inhalation. However, the powder fluidisation mechanisms are poorly understood which leads to low efficiency of DPIs with 10-35 % of the dose reaching the site of action. The main aim of this thesis is to study the hydrodynamics of powder fluidisation in DPIs, using experimental and computational approaches. An experimental test rig was developed to replicate the process of transient powder fluidisation in an impinging air jet configuration. The powder fluidisation chamber was scaled up resulting in a two dimensional particle flow prototype, which encloses 3.85 mm glass beads. Using optical image processing techniques, individual particles were detected and tracked throughout the experimental time and domain. By varying the air flow rate to the test section, two particle fluidisation regimes were studied. In the first fluidisation regime, the particle bed was fully fluidised in less than 0.25 s due to the strong air jet. Particle velocity vectors showed strong convective flow with no evidence of diffusive motion triggered by inter-particle collisions. In the second fluidisation regime, the particle flow experienced two stages. The first stage showed strong convective flow similar to the first fluidisation regime, while the second stage showed more complex particle flow with collisional and convective flow taking place on the same time and length scales. The continuum Two Fluid Model (TFM) was used to solve the governing equations of the coupled granular and gas phases for the same experimental conditions. Sub-models for particle-gas and particle-particle interactions were used to complete the model description. Inter-particle interactions were resolved using models based on the kinetic theory of granular flow for the rapid flow regime and models based on soil mechanics for the frictional regime. Numerical predictions of the first fluidisation regime showed that the model should incorporate particle-wall friction and minimise diffusion, simultaneously. Ignoring friction resulted in fluidisation timing mismatch, while increasing the diffusion resulted in homogenous particle fluidisation in contrast to the aggregative convective fluidisation noticed in the experiments. Numerical predictions of the second fluidisation regime agreed well with the experiments for the convection dominated first stage of flow up to 0.3 s. However, later stages of complex particle flow showed qualitative discrepancies between the experimental and the computational approaches suggesting that current continuum granular models need further development. The findings of the present thesis have contributed towards better understanding of the mechanics of particle fluidisation and dense multiphase flow in DPI in particular, and particle bed fluidisation using impinging air jet in general. The use of TFM for predicting high speed convective granular flows, such as those in DPIs, is promising. Further studies are needed to investigate the form of particle-particle interactions within continuum granular flow models.

No description available.

The overall aim of this research project was to develop surfactant dry powder formulations and devices for efficient delivery of aerosol formulations to infants using the excipient enhanced growth (EEG) approach. Use of novel formulations and inline delivery devices would allow for more efficient treatment of infants suffering from neonatal respiratory distress syndrome and bronchiolitis. A dry powder aerosol formulation has been developed using the commercial product, Survanta ® (beractant) and EEG technology to produce micrometer-sized hygroscopic particles. Spray drying and formulation parameters were initially determined with dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC, the dominant phospholipid in pulmonary surfactant), which produced primary particles 1 um in size with a mass median aerodynamic diameter of 1-2 um. Investigation of dry powder dispersion enhancers and alcohol concentration on the effect of powder aerosol characteristics were performed with the Survanta-EEG formulation. The optimal formulation consisted of Survanta ® , mannitol and sodium chloride as hygroscopic excipients, and leucine as the dry powder dispersion enhancer, prepared in 20% v/v ethanol/water. The powders produced primary particles of 1 um with >50% of the particles less than 1 um. The presence of surfactant proteins and surface activity were demonstrated with the Survanta-EEG formulation following processing. A novel containment unit dry powder inhaler (DPI) was designed for delivery of the surfactant-EEG formulation using a low volume of dispersion air. Studies explored optimization of air entrainment pathway, inlet hole pattern, delivery tube internal diameter and length. With 3- 10 mg fill masses of spray dried surfactant powder, the DPI enabled delivery of >2 mg using one 3-mL actuation of dispersion air. Overall, it was possible to deliver >85% of the loaded fill mass using three actuations. Nebulized aerosol formulations are characterized with low delivered doses. Using a novel mixer-heater delivery system, the highest estimated percent lung dose achieved during realistic in vitro testing of a Survanta-EEG formulation aerosolized with a commercial mesh nebulizer was when nebulization was synchronized with inhalation of the breathing profile. Design changes to the mixer-heater system eliminated the need for synchronization, achieving an estimated percent lung dose of 31% of the nominal, an improvement compared with existing systems that achieve approximately <2% lung dose.

Le cancer du poumon est l’un des cancers les plus fréquents dans le monde et reste le plus meurtrier actuellement en terme d’incidence absolue. Les traitements employés chez les patients atteints d’un cancer du poumon consistent en une combinaison de chirurgie, de radiothérapie et de chimiothérapie. Alors qu’il y a quelques années, les guidelines de traitement étaient principalement basées sur le stade clinique de la maladie, le développement de nouvelles thérapies a mené à une classification plus appropriée des cancers du poumon. Cette nouvelle classification se base, en plus du stade clinique de la maladie, sur l’expression de différents biomarqueurs exprimés chez des sous-populations bien définies de patients. Ces biomarqueurs sont par exemple la mutation d’un gène ou l’expression d’une protéine. Au cours de ces dix dernières années, la recherche a été très active dans ce domaine avec l’arrivée de nouveaux traitements plus spécifiques pour ces sous-populations de patients. Des exemples concrets de ces nouvelles thérapies sont les chimiothérapies dites ciblées et l’immunothérapie. L’arrivée de tels traitements a parmi d’augmenter significativement le pronostic de la maladie et également de réduire considérablement les graves effets secondaires des chimiothérapies conventionnelles. Toutefois, le bénéfice en termes de survie reste modéré. Le taux de survie des patients à cinq ans est actuellement de 15%. Il y a donc toujours un besoin urgent de mettre au point de nouvelles stratégie de traitement.La chimiothérapie inhalée constitue une perspective de traitement adjuvant du cancer du poumon très intéressante, comparée à la chimiothérapie conventionnelle. En effet, elle permettrait d’administrer des doses d’anticancéreux plus importantes directement au niveau du site tumoral tout en limitant l’exposition systémique du médicament dans l’organisme, et donc, les toxicités importantes s’y rapportant. Toutefois, aucun médicament suivant cette approche n’est actuellement disponible sur le marché et ce, malgré quelques études cliniques de Phase I/II. Cela peut principalement s’expliquer par (i) l’incapacité d’administrer des doses inhalées efficaces d’agent anticancéreux avec les dispositifs d’inhalation utilisés (les nébuliseurs), (ii) les inquiétudes quant à une possible augmentation des toxicités pulmonaires des agents anticancéreux administrés par inhalation, (iii) les moyens devant être mis en place afin d’assurer la non-contamination de l’environnement et du personnel soignant lors d’une séance d’inhalation. Basée sur de nouvelles technologies pharmaceutiques (l’inhalation sous forme de poudre sèche, les nanomédecines, les thérapies ciblées, etc.) et sur une meilleure connaissance de la biologie des cancers, la stratégie scientifique que nous proposons pourrait permettre d’apporter une solution aux problématiques précitées. Ce travail décrit le développement de nouvelles formulations de poudre sèche pour inhalation (« dry powder for inhalation », DPI) à base de nanovecteurs ciblés contre le récepteur au folate (« folate receptor », FR) pour le traitement sélectif de cancers du poumon FR-positifs. Ces formulations permettraient le ciblage (i) du site tumoral par l’utilisation de l’administration pulmonaire et (ii) spécifique des cellules cancéreuses du poumon par les nanovecteurs ciblés. Trois parties constituent ce travail.Dans la première partie, deux nouveaux excipients folatés (c.à.d. sur lesquels ont été greffés des groupements folates) ont été synthétisés en trois étapes principales par une méthode de synthèse faisant appel à des dérivés de carbodiimide. Ces excipients comportent trois types de composants majeures relatifs à leur fonction :un ligand, le groupement folate, pour le ciblage des FRs ;un composé de charge, un polysaccharide, capable d’interagir avec l’agent anticancéreux ou une structure contenant celui-ci ;et un spacer, le poly(éthylène glycol), afin d’assurer une bonne flexibilité du folate et ainsi permettre une bonne interaction avec le FR. Ces nouveaux excipients folatés ont été caractérisés par RMN du proton, par spectrométrie de masse et par analyse thermique. L’excipient F-PEG-HMD (« folate-poly(ethylene glycol)-hydrophobically-modified dextran ») était capable de former des micelles caractérisées par une distribution de taille particulaire bimodale dans l’eau, avec un diamètre moyen d’environ 80 nm. F-PEG-HMD était caractérisé par une concentration micellaire critique de 4 x 10-7 M. L’excipient F-PEG-HTCC (« Folate-poly(ethylene glycol)-(N-[(2-hydroxy- 3-trimethylammonium)propyl] chitosan ») présentait des charges positives permettant de se solubiliser en milieu aqueux, indépendamment du pH.Dans la deuxième partie du travail, des formulations DPI ont été développées à base de l’agent anticancéreux témozolomide (TMZ). Celui-ci a été choisi comme premier modèle de principe actif pour son mécanisme d’action particulier qui lui confère une activité dans les cancers apopto-résistants, comme c’est le cas de beaucoup de cancers du poumon. De plus, l’administration d’une formulation de TMZ sous forme de nanovecteur permettrait de considérablement augmenter son activité en augmentant, par exemple, sa stabilité in vivo, ou encore son incorporation intracellulaire spécifique dans les cellules cancéreuses. Toutefois, le TMZ est caractérisé par des propriétés physicochimiques ne permettant que très difficilement son encapsulation dans des nanovecteurs. Le TMZ est une petite molécule, faiblement soluble dans l’eau sans toutefois être lipophile. Comme type de nanovecteur, les micelles polymériques pourraient présenter un bon profil pour encapsuler le TMZ. Des micelles composées de F-PEG-HMD et de TMZ ont été préparées par solubilisation de ces deux composés en présence. La solubilité dans l’eau du TMZ a pu ainsi être doublée en présence de F-PEG-HMD, ce qui pourrait mener à des concentrations de TMZ augmentées au sein du site tumoral. Les micelles polymériques présentaient un diamètre moyen de 50-60 nm, en fonction de la concentration en F-PEG-HMD utilisée. Les formulations DPI ont été préparées par spray-drying des micelles en présence de mannitol et de leucine. Le TMZ est resté stable durant l’étape de spray-drying, ainsi confirmé par des propriétés antiprolifératives in vitro des formulations DPI semblables à une solution de TMZ. Deux des formulations DPI développées présentaient de bonnes propriétés aérodynamiques, avec des fractions en particule fine jusqu’à 50%, et étaient capable de libérer les micelles polymériques rapidement en milieu aqueux. Toutefois, les taux d’encapsulation obtenus étaient relativement bas (inférieurs à 10%). Le travail s’est donc poursuivi avec un autre agent anticancéreux, le paclitaxel.Dans la troisième partie du travail, des formulations DPI à base de nanovecteurs chargés en paclitaxel (PTX). Le PTX a été choisi comme deuxième modèle d’agent anticancéreux car il s’agit d’une des molécules les plus couramment utilisées dans le traitement du cancer du poumon, et ce malgré les graves effets secondaires systémiques engendrés par l’administration intraveineuse de ce médicament. L’utilisation de la voie pulmonaire pourrait permettre d’optimiser les traitements à base de PTX, et ainsi, la qualité de vie des patients (réductions conséquentes des graves effets secondaires systémiques et meilleure réponse thérapeutique). Deux types de nanovecteurs ont été préparés avec des taux d’encapsulation en PTX d’approximativement 100%. Des micelles polymériques à base de F-PEG-HMD et de PTX ont été préparées par une méthode de dialyse avec un diamètre moyen de 50 nm et un potentiel zêta d’environ -4 mV dans le PBS. Des nanoparticules lipidiques solides (« solid lipid nanoparticle », SLN) chargées en PTX ont été préparées par une méthode de nanoprécipitation et les SLNs ont ensuite été enrobées par F-PEG-HTCC. La présence de l’enrobage a été confirmée par la taille et la charge des particules (diamètre moyen de 160 nm à 230 nm et potentiel zêta de -20 mV à + 30 mV, avant et après enrobage, respectivement). Les nanovecteurs étaient capables d’être incorporés, in vitro, dans les cellules HeLa et M109-HiFR, deux lignées de cellules cancéreuses exprimant le FR, et in vivo, après administration par inhalation sur un modèle orthotopique de cancer pulmonaire murin Ce modèle, le modèle M109, a été développé dans le cadre de ce travail à partir de la lignée M109-HiFR. Après administration par inhalation, les SLNs restaient enrobées dans les tissus pulmonaires et tumoraux. Les nanovecteurs ont montré une activité antiproliférative in vitro sur les deux lignées précitées. De plus, cette activité était significativement plus grande avec les SLNs enrobées chargées en PTX qu’avec la formulation commerciale contenant le paclitaxel, le Taxol®, avec des concentrations inhibitrices médianes de 60 et 340 nM, respectivement. L’activité anti-cancéreuse in vivo des SLNs enrobées, qui présentaient un meilleur profil que les micelles polymériques pour être étudiées in vivo (plus haute teneur en PTX, plus grande activité antiproliférative, et meilleure profil de libération du PTX in vitro), a été évaluée sur le modèle M109. Les SLNs enrobées, administrées par inhalation, seules ou en association avec le Taxol par intraveineuse, ont été comparées au Taxol®, administré par inhalation, par intraveineuse ou les deux, à la même dose de PTX totale. Les traitements à base des SLNs enrobées, en particulier en association avec le Taxol® en intraveineuse, ont menés un allongement significatif de la survie des souris M109, par rapport au Taxol en intraveineuse seul (survie médiane de 38 et 27 jours, respectivement). De plus, la mort de la dernière souris M109 a été observé au jour 61 pour le traitement SLN/Taxol en association, comparé au jour 33 pour le Taxol en intraveineuse, seul, à la même dose totale en PTX (10-8-8-8 mg/kg), et au jour 29 pour le contrôle négatif (c.à.d. les souris n’ayant pas reçu de traitement). Des études supplémentaires sont toutefois requises pour conclure une potentielle augmentation de l’activité anticancéreuse des SLNs inhalées par rapport au Taxol®. En effet, les doses de PTX en inhalation étaient trop grandes pour le modèle M109 menant à la mort d’une partie non négligeable des souris M109. Nous pouvons toutefois conclure que le traitement à base des SLNs inhalées en association avec le Taxol® en intraveineuse semble prometteur pour la suite du projet. Des formulations DPI ont ensuite été produites à partir des nanovecteurs chargés en PTX par spray-drying. Les formulations obtenues présentaient une large déposition in vitro dans les poumons, avec des fractions en particule fine allant jusqu’à 50% et de bonnes propriétés de libération des nanovecteurs en milieu aqueux. Quel que soit le principe actif ou le nanovecteur utilisé, les formulations DPI développées ont montré une large déposition pulmonaire in vitro dans les voies aériennes inférieures, où les adénocarcinomes pulmonaires sont le plus souvent trouvés. De plus, les formulations ne contenant que les excipients étaient bien tolérées in vivo après inhalation chez la souris saine. Cela a été vérifié par analyse des fluides bronchoalvéolaires en termes de concentration totale en protéine, de population de cellules, et de concentration en cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Ce travail montre dès lors également que les formulations DPI pourraient constituer un système de délivrance de médicament intéressant pour amener des nanovecteurs dans le tractus respiratoire où la tumeur réside. Toutefois, alors que de nombreuses caractéristiques intéressantes des formulations ont été démontrées (la tolérance des excipients, les profils de libération du PTX obtenus, l’incorporation intracellulaire des nanovecteur ainsi que leur bonne distribution dans du tissu tumoral in vivo et leur activité anticancéreuse, etc.), l’implication des FRs pour expliquer ces caractéristiques n’a pas pu être établie clairement. / Lung cancer is one of the most frequent cancers in the world, and remains the most deadly. Lung cancer therapy involves the combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Whereas the treatment guidelines used to be related mainly to the stage of the disease, more recent treatments have introduced the concept of treating lung cancers according not only to the stage, but also to the specific characteristics of the tumors, i.e. a gene mutation, expression of a protein, etc. In the last decade, scientific and clinical research has been very active in this field, with recurrent introduction of new treatments, including new chemotherapies (e.g. targeted chemotherapies and immunotherapies). Many of these new treatments certainly induce better therapeutic responses and a sharp reduction in the adverse effects of conventional chemotherapies for well-defined subpopulations of patients. However, the benefit in terms of survival rates is only moderate. The five-year survival rate is currently ~15%. There is therefore no doubt that new treatment approaches and strategies are needed. One interesting approach is aerosolized chemotherapy. The pulmonary delivery of anti-cancer drugs could potentially be an interesting alternative to conventional adjuvant chemotherapy in lung cancer treatment, for many reasons. Among them, it could enhance the therapeutic ratio significantly by decreasing systemic severe toxicities and increasing anti-tumour efficacy. However, despite interesting clinical trial reports, all the strategies describing an aerosolized anti-cancer treatment have failed to bring new medicine on the market so far. The failures have been related mainly to (i) the inability to deliver proper and efficient drug doses in the lungs with the inhalation devices used in clinical trials (i.e. nebulizers), (ii) concerns about potential increase in lung toxicities engendered by these anti-cancer drug-based aerosols, and (iii) the requirement for adapted facilities to perform the inhalation procedure safely. Based on new pharmaceutical technologies (i.e. dry powder for inhalation (DPI) technology, nanomedicine, drug targeting, etc.) and on a better knowledge of cancer biology, a plausible and feasible answer to the aforementioned causes of failure was proposed. In this work, new nanomedicine-based DPI formulations were designed and developed for proposal as adjuvant chemotherapy for lung cancer treatment, especially for folate receptor (FR)-positive adenocarcinomas. These formulations would potentiate chemotherapy by means of a dual-targeting approach, i.e. the targeting of (i) lung tumor site(s) with pulmonary delivery and (ii) lung cancer cells with FR-targeted nanocarriers. To set up this approach, the work included three parts.In the first part, two new folate-grafted excipients were synthesized using carbodiimide-mediated chemistry in three main steps. These excipients consisted of three main components with a defined function: a ligand bringing selectivity, i.e. folate groups; a loading compound able to interact non-covalently with the anti-cancer drug or a drug delivery system, i.e. polysaccharides; and a spacer ensuring good flexibility of the ligand to allow its binding to the target, i.e. poly(ethylene glycol). The excipients were characterized by 1H-NMR, mass spectrometry and thermal analysis. Folate-polyethylene glycol-hydrophobically-modified dextran (F-PEG-HMD), a new folate-grafted self-assembling copolymer, presented a critical micellar concentration in water of 4 x 10-7 M. F-PEG-HMD micelles were characterized by a trimodal particle size distribution with a Z-average diameter of about 80 nm in water. Folate-polyethylene glycol-(N-[(2-hydroxy- 3-trimethylammonium)propyl] chitosan) (F-PEG-HTCC) presented positive charges and was easily dissolved in water, regardless of the pH.In the second part, dry powders were developed with the anti-cancer drug temozolomide (TMZ). TMZ was chosen as the first anti-cancer drug model due to its interesting anti-cancer activity in poor prognosis, apopto-resistant cancers, as is the case for many lung cancers. In addition, TMZ delivery via a nanocarrier might present many advantages such as prolonged lifetime and specific improved intracellular delivery into cancer cells. However, TMZ is characterized by poor properties for encapsulation into nanocarriers. It presents poor water solubility and low lipophilicity. Because of these properties, polymeric micelles presented the best profile for entrapping TMZ. TMZ-loaded F-PEG-HMD micelles were prepared by co-dissolution of TMZ and F-PEG-HMD. TMZ solubility in water was increased in the presence of F-PEG-HMD (a two-fold increase in molar solubility) which could potentially lead to increased local concentrations in the tumor site. The TMZ-loaded F-PEG-HMD micelles were characterized by Z-average diameters in the range of 50-60 nm, depending on the F-PEG-HMD concentration used. The micelles were spray dried to produce dry powders. TMZ remained stable during all the formulation steps, confirmed by similar in vitro anti-proliferative properties for the DPI formulations and a TMZ solution. Two of the developed DPI formulations were characterized by good aerodynamic properties (with a fine particle fraction of up to 50%) and were able to release the F-PEG-HMD micelles quickly in aqueous media. However, as presumed, poor entrapment efficiency values were obtained (less than 10%). A second anti-cancer compound was therefore chosen to pursue in the study, the lipophilic paclitaxel.In the third part, nanocarrier-loaded dry powders were developed with the poorly water-soluble anti-cancer drug paclitaxel (PTX) and the new folate-grafted excipients. PTX was chosen as a model drug because it is an effective anti-cancer drug currently used in lung cancer therapy and it causes severe systemic toxicities when delivered by the conventional intravenous route. Pulmonary delivery of PTX might therefore optimize treatment efficacy and/or quality of life in lung cancer patients. Two types of PTX-loaded nanocarrier were prepared with an encapsulation efficiency of approximatively 100%. PTX-loaded F-PEG-HMD micelles were prepared by a dialysis method. These had a Z-average diameter of about 50 nm and a zeta potential of about -4 mV in PBS. F-PEG-HTCC-coated solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) loaded with PTX were prepared in two main steps. PTX-loaded SLNs were first prepared using a nanoprecipitation method and the SLNs were then coated with F-PEG-HTCC. Efficient coating was confirmed by particle size and zeta potential (Z-average diameter of 160 nm to 230 nm and zeta potential of -20 mV to +30 mV before and after F-PEG-HTCC coating, respectively). The nanocarriers were able to enter HeLa and M109-HiFR, two FR-expressing cancer cell lines, in vitro, and in vivo after administration by inhalation to orthotopic M109-HiFR lung tumor grafted mice. This orthotopic model, i.e. the M109 model, was developed in the study. The SLNs remained coated with F-PEG-HTCC in lung tissues and tumors after inhalation. The PTX contained in the nanocarriers remained active against HeLa and M109-HiFR in vitro, as observed by means of the colorimetric MTT assays. Moreover, PTX-loaded SLNs were characterized by significantly higher anti-proliferative properties than Taxol®, with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations of 60 and 340 nM, respectively. Afterwards, the in vivo anti-cancer activity of the coated SLNs, which led to better profile than the polymeric micelles to be studied in vivo (i.e. higher PTX loading, higher anti-proliferative properties, and better release profile of PTX in vitro), was evaluated using the M109 model. The coated SLNs, administered by inhalation, alone or combined with intravenous Taxol®, were compared with Taxol®, administered by inhalation, IV or both, at the same PTX-relative doses. Interestingly, we observed much longer survivals for the SLN inhaled treatments, especially when combined with intravenous Taxol®, than for intravenous Taxol alone (median survivals of 38 and 27 days, respectively). Moreover, the last tumor-bearing mouse death occurred at day 61 for the SLN combined therapy, compared with day 33 for the intravenous therapy alone, at the same total PTX-relative dose (i.e. 10-8-8-8 mg/kg), and with day 29 for negative control (i.e. non-treated mice). However, further evaluations are needed to conclude that there is any improvement in terms of therapeutic response compared with intravenous Taxol®. Indeed, bias related to the fact that the aerosolized PTX doses were too high was included in the survival rate analysis and was revealed by unacceptable treatment-related deaths. Nevertheless, the combination of aerosolized, loaded SLNs and intravenous Taxol seemed to be an interesting strategy of treatment to follow. Dry powders embedding the PTX-loaded nanocarriers were developed by spray-drying. In vitro, good deposition profiles were obtained, with a fine particle fraction of up to 50% and good ability to re-disperse the nanocarriers in aqueous media.Whatever the drug or the nanocarrier adopted, the developed DPI formulations showed wide in vitro pulmonary deposition in the lower respiratory tract, where adenocarcinomas are more often found. Moreover, nanocarrier-based dry powders without drugs were well-tolerated in vivo, as assessed in healthy mice by determination of total protein content, cell count, and cytokine IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α concentration in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids. The present work therefore also shows that dry powders for inhalation could constitute an interesting drug delivery system able to release nanocarriers in the respiratory tract where the tumor is growing and spreading. However, in contrast to the undeniable improvements in terms of drug delivery system (e.g. safety of the excipients, drug release profile, the cell binding and uptake of the nanocarriers and their distribution into tumor in vivo, anti-cancer activity), no substantial effect linked to an implication of the FRs was observed to explain the aforesaid improvements. / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques (Pharmacie) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Dry powder inhalers (DPI), used as a means for pulmonary drug delivery, typically contain a combination of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) and significantly larger carrier particles. The microsized drug particles-which have a strong propensity to aggregate and poor aerosolization performance-are mixed with significantly large carrier particles that cannot penetrate the mouth-throat region to deagglomerate and entrain the smaller API particles in the inhaled airflow. Therefore, a DPI's performance depends on the carrier-API combination particles' entrainment and the time and thoroughness of the individual API particles' deagglomeration from the carrier particles. Since DPI particle transport is significantly affected by particle-particle interactions, particle sizes and shapes present significant challenges to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelers to model regional lung deposition from a DPI. We employed the Particle-In-Cell method for studying the transport/deposition and the agglomeration and deagglomeration for DPI carrier and API particles in the present work. The proposed development will leverage CFD-PIC and sensitivity analysis capabilities from the Department of Energy laboratories: Multiphase Flow Interface Flow Exchange and Dakota UQ software. A data-driven framework is used to obtain the reliable low order statics of the particle's residence time in the inhaler. The framework is further used to study the effect of drug particle density, carrier particle density and size, fluidizing agent density and velocity, and some numerical parameters on the particles' residence time in the inhaler.

The initial objective of this research project was to determine the feasibility of manufacturing carbon fiber-reinforced (CFR) composites with a matrix consisting of a phenylethynyl-terminated version of a thermoplastic poly(etherimide) termed PETU. Successful composite manufacture with 3,000 g/mol (3k) PETU led to a survey of CFR 3kPETU mechanical properties for comparison with other high-performance composites. Encouraging results led to a study of moisture sorption effects on CFR 3kPETU properties. The success of these initial studies spawned the large scale production of 2,500 g/mol (2.5k) PETU. Thermal characterization of neat and CFR 2.5kPETU via differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, and parallel plate rheometry resulted in an understanding of the influence of cure time and temperature on reaction progress via both reaction kinetics and monitoring of the glass transition temperature. From the rheological characterization, a two-stage, dual-Arrhenius model was developed to successfully model isothermal complex viscosity over the range of processing temperatures. Neat 2.5kPETU and CFR 2.5kPETU specimens were exposed separately to elevated temperature environments of different moisture and different oxygen concentrations to evaluate the effects of moisture absorption, moisture desorption, and thermal oxidation on material properties. Moisture absorption took place in a 90 °C / 85% relative humidity environment followed by moisture desorption in a 90 °C / 10% relative humidity environment. Thermal-oxidative aging for up to 5000 hours took place at 204 204 °C in environments of four different oxygen partial pressures: 0.0 kPa, 2.84 kPa, 20.2 kPa, and 40.4 kPa. Following exposure to the different aging environments, the specimens were tested for retention of mechanical properties. In addition, moisture sorption properties were measured. Results from the moisture sorption studies on CFR 3kPETU and CFR 2.5kPETU suggest that fully cured composites will withstand moisture absorption and desorption with negligible effects on mechanical properties, whereas, lack of full cure allows moisture sorption to permanently damage the composites. Despite a lack of mass loss or visual evidence of degradation following thermal-oxidative aging, a decline in mechanical properties was observed with the reduction becoming greater with longer aging times and higher oxygen partial pressures. / Ph. D.

Chrysin is a flavonoid that can be used as a medication for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease due to its anti-inflammatory activities. However, no studies have investigated the effectiveness of an inhaled formulation of chrysin on its own or in combination with corticosteroids. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the aerosol performance of chrysin formulations as well as the performance of combined formulations of chrysin and budesonide. Dry powder inhaler formulations were used first, where chrysin was processed using three different techniques, namely ball-milling, sonocrystallisation, and spray drying, to obtain a suitable particle size for inhalation. The highest fine particle fraction was 27% when the sonocrystallised samples were used. As the lung deposition was relatively low, budesonide was not added to the formulations. Next, liquid formulations of chrysin and budesonide were prepared in two concentrations using limonene and oleic acid as the oil phase. In a comparison of low and high drug concentrations of the formulations, the FPF of the formulations prepared with limonene ranged from 45% to 53.3% and from 49.3% to 53.9% for chrysin and budesonide, respectively; by contrast, the FPF of the formulations prepared with oleic acid oil ranged from 41% to 50.4% and from 46% to 53.3% for chrysin and budesonide, respectively. A genotoxicity study confirmed the safety of these combined formulations, and an anti-inflammatory study confirmed the potential for chrysin to be used with budesonide in a combined formulation; thus, chrysin’s anti-inflammatory efficacy can be improved and the required inhaled dose can be reduced.

There has been very little research into the bioanalytical application of Microemulsion High Performance Liquid Chromatography (MELC), a recently established technique for separating an active pharmaceutical ingredient from its related substances and for determining the quantity of active drug in a dose. Also, the technique is not good at separating hydrophilic drugs of very similar chemical structures. Different phase diagrams of oil (octane or ethyl acetate), co-surfactant (butanol), surfactant (sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) or Brij-35) and buffer (Phosphate pH 3) were developed and several nanoemulsion mobile phases identified. Nanoemulsion mobile phase that is, prepared with SDS, octane, butanol and a phosphate buffer, failed to separate hydrophilic compounds with a very close chemical structure, such as terbutaline and salbutamol. A nanoemulsion mobile phase containing a non-ionic surfactant (Brij-35) with ethyl acetate, butanol and a phosphate buffer, was, however, successful in achieving a base line separation, and the method was validated for simultaneous determination of terbutaline and salbutamol in aqueous and urine samples. An oil-in-water (O/W) NELC method was developed and validated for the determination of formoterol in an Oxis® Turbuhaler® using pre-column fluorescence derivatisation. Although the same mobile phase was extended for separation of formoterol in urine, the formoterol peak's overlap with endogenous peaks meant that fluorescence detection could not determine formoterol in urine samples. Solid phase extraction, concentrating the final analyte 40 times, enabled determination of a low concentration of formoterol in urine samples by UV detection. The method was validated and an acceptable assay precision %CV <4.89 inter-day and %CV <2.33 intra-day was achieved. Then after the application of O/W nanoemulsion mobile phase for HPLC was extended for the separation of lipophilic drugs. The nanoemulsion liquid chromatography (NELC) method was optimised for the determination of salmeterol and fluticasone propionate in good validation data was achieved. This thesis shows that, in general, the performance of O/W NELC is superior to that of conventional High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) for the analysis of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs in inhaled dosage formulations and urine samples. It has been shown that NELC uses cheaper solvents and that analysis time is faster for aqueous and urine samples. This considerable saving in both cost and time will potentially improve efficiency within quality control.

The overall objectives of this research project were i) to develop and evaluate methods of characterizing nasal spray products using realistic nasal airway models as more clinically relevant in vitro tools and ii) to develop and evaluate a novel high-efficiency antibiotic nanoparticle dry powder formulation and delivery device. Two physically realistic nasal airway models were used to assess the effects of patient-use experimental conditions, nasal airway geometry and formulation / device properties on the delivery efficiency of nasal spray products. There was a large variability in drug delivery to the middle passages ranging from 17 – 57 % and 47 – 77 % with respect to patient use conditions for the two nasal airway geometries. The patient use variables of nasal spray position, head angle and nasal inhalation timing with respect to spray actuation were found to be significant in determining nasal valve penetration and middle passage deposition of Nasonex®. The developed test methods were able to reproducibly generate similar nasal deposition profiles for nasal spray products with similar plume and droplet characteristics. Differences in spray plume geometry (smaller plume diameter resulted in higher middle passage drug delivery) were observed to have more influence on regional nasal drug deposition than changes to droplet size for mometasone furoate formulations in the realistic airway models. Ciprofloxacin nanoparticles with a mean (SD) volume diameter of 120 (10) nm suitable for penetration through mucus and biofilm layers were prepared using sonocrystallization technique. These ciprofloxacin nanoparticles were then spray dried in a PVP K30 matrix to form nanocomposite particles with a mean (SD) volume diameter of 5.6 (0.1) µm. High efficiency targeted delivery of the nanocomposite nasal powder formulation was achieved using a modified low flow VCU DPI in combination with a novel breathing maneuver; delivering 73 % of the delivered dose to the middle passages. A modified version of the nasal airway model accommodating Transwell® inserts and a Calu-3 monolayer was developed to allow realistic deposition and evaluation of the nasal powder. The nanocomposite formulation was observed to demonstrate improved dissolution and transepithelial transport (flux = 725 ng/h/cm2) compared to unprocessed ciprofloxacin powder (flux = 321 ng/h/cm2).

Dry powder inhalers (DPIs) are commonly used to deliver drugs to the lungs. The drug particles used in these DPIs should possess a number of key properties. These include an aerodynamic particle size < 5μm and particle crystallinity for long term formulation stability. The conventionally used micronization technique to produce inhalation particles offers limited opportunities to control and optimize the particle characteristics. It is also known to induce crystalline disorder in the particles leading to formulation instability. Hence, this research project investigates and optimizes a solvent/anti-solvent crystallization process capable of directly yielding inhalation particles using albuterol sulfate (AS) as a model drug. Further, the feasibility of the process to produce combination particles of AS and ipratropium bromide monohydrate (IB) in predictable proportions and in a size suitable for inhalation is also investigated. The solvent / anti-solvent systems employed were water / ethyl acetate (EA) and water / isopropanol (IPA). Investigation and optimization of the crystallization variables with the water / EA system revealed that particle crystallinity was significantly influenced by an interaction between the drug solution / anti-solvent ratio (Ra ratio), stirring speed and crystal maturation time. Inducing a temperature difference between the drug solution and anti-solvent (Tdrug solution > Tanti-solvent) resulted in smaller particles being formed at a positive temperature difference of 65°C. IPA was shown to be the optimum anti-solvent for producing AS particles (IPA-AS) in a size range suitable for inhalation. In vitro aerosol performance of these IPA-AS particles was found to be superior compared to the conventionally used micronized particles when aerosolized from the Novolizer®. The solvent / anti-solvent systems investigated and optimized for combination particles were water / EA, water / IPA, and water / IPA:EA 1:10 (w/w). IPA was found to be the optimum anti-solvent for producing combination particles of AS and IB with the smallest size. These combination particles showed uniform co-deposition during in vitro aerosol performance testing from the Novolizer®. Pilot molecular modeling studies in conjunction with the analysis of particle interactions using HINT provided an improved understanding of the possible interactions between AS and IB within a combination particle matrix.