With the rise of the number of immigrant children in schools across the U.S., education research has directed its attention to understanding these newcomers' social experiences at school. Though Brazilian immigrant populations are growing, research on their unique social experiences remains limited. Grounded in critical sociocultural theory, this interpretive phenomenological study shares the social experiences of four Brazilian newcomers in elementary school. Participants were adolescents who had immigrated to the U.S. as children and attended English-only and/or Dual Language Bilingual Education (DLBE) programs. As adolescents, participants were able to look back on their experiences as a newcomer in elementary school with greater perspective. Analysis of interview data reveal three main themes in Brazilian newcomers' experiences: (a) positive interactions with other Brazilian immigrant students; (b) microaggressions from non-Brazilian immigrant students; and (c) isolation due to the dominance of English at school. Findings underscore the importance of Portuguese-English DLBE programs as a place for Brazilian newcomers to support one another. Additionally, findings reveal the prevalence of microaggressions across English-only and DLBE settings, underscoring the need for schools and teacher preparation programs to equip teachers with tools to support these students' sociocultural competence in order to address microaggressions.

Two-way dual language programs are a form of enrichment or additive bilingual education “that target(s) students from two language backgrounds (e.g., Spanish and English) who study the content-areas through both languages in integrated classrooms” (R. Freeman, 2007, p. 5). These programs have been growing rapidly over the last few years (O. Garcia, 2010; Hamman, 2017; Wilson, 2011). A number of scholars have agreed that well-implemented programs of the model are more effective in helping English learners (EL) reach grade-level proficiency in reading by the end of eighth grade than other forms of education (Thomas & Collier, 2012). While there is a growing consensus in the field on the long-term benefits of this type of school for ELs, there is a need for further qualitative research focusing on the pedagogy and curriculum dual language teachers employ to successfully teach reading to their student body. Differentiation, which is an increasingly popular instructional approach (Smit & Humpert, 2012), is a critical piece to teaching reading to a diverse group of students, as is the case in dual language schools. Situated a dual language school in a large urban area on the East Coast, this 5-month qualitative case study aimed to understand how and why four teachers differentiate reading instruction in both Spanish and English through the use of participant observation, teacher interviews, and artifact collection. Findings show that in addition to creating a supportive environment, teachers utilized tools like technology, visuals, translanguaging, and support from paraprofessionals to differentiate reading instruction for language learners. Additionally, while the findings demonstrate many similarities across instruction in both languages, they also reveal a disparity of resources. Lastly, the findings show teachers’ decisions are largely influenced by factors such as their students’ funds of knowledge, their own funds of knowledge, Cummins’ (1979) theory of interdependence, time, technology, and school district requirements. / Literacy & Learners

Thesis advisor: Rebecca Lowenhaupt / Diversity in U.S. schools has increased significantly over the last decades. One in four children under 18 live with at least one immigrant parent, and 22% of U.S. residents aged five or older report speaking a language other than English at home (Esterline & Batalova, 2022). The experiences of immigrant-origin students vary depending on contextual factors such as individual school's policies and practices, the community where the school is located, as well as national and state legislation (Portes & Rumbaut, 2014; Golash-Boza & Valdez, 2018). This three-paper dissertation aims to understand the nuances of educating immigrant-origin students from the perspective of educators in distinct contexts. The first paper is a qualitative interview study in a Texas school district near the US/Mexico border. I investigated the language ideologies that underlie educators' perspectives on language separation in Dual Language Bilingual Education (DLBE) classrooms. Educators in this study held complex ideologies about language separation in DL classrooms, informed by their view on the district’s students and families, the dynamic language practices of their border community, professional development, and testing and district policy requirements. The second paper presents a case study of a highly diverse school district in Illinois that established a district-wide ESL endorsement requirement. For this study, I interviewed educators and analyzed district documentation to understand the policy goals that guided the district to create this policy and how educators made sense of it. While policy goals were shared by educators in all roles, there was not enough space for collective sensemaking for teachers, who were critical of how policy implementation affected them. The third paper offers a comparative interview study of two school districts in Texas and Illinois with very different geographical locations, student demographics, and racial/ethnic makeup of their teacher force. This study examines how context shaped educators' attitudes and beliefs toward immigrant-origin students and families. Despite differences, educators from both districts who had experience working with immigrant populations shared similar and positive attitudes regarding immigrant-origin students and families’ assets, needs, and dispositions toward school. These results may help inform district language policy, policy implementation, and hiring decisions. / Thesis (EdD) — Boston College, 2024. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Teaching, Curriculum, and Society.

Dual language learners (DLLs) represent a rapidly growing population of students in United States preschools. DLLs increasingly experience social emotional learning (SEL) programs in their early learning environments, which are now widely implemented in Head Start and other publicly funded preschools. However, limited research has explored the extent to which SEL programs support DLL development. Investigating the impact of SEL programs on DLL skills is critical to both enhance the literature on SEL programs and to identify the types of preschool curricula that benefit DLLs. In the present study, I took an ecological systems and sociocultural approach to evaluating the extent to which SEL programs support DLL language and social outcomes and whether these outcomes depend on classroom contextual factors. Using an existing data set that included a large number of DLLs enrolled in Head Start, I fit a series of multilevel models to evaluate whether participating in an SEL program predicted growth in DLLs’ social skills and vocabulary over time compared to participating in a control group. I conducted a multilevel moderation analysis to examine the extent to which DLL outcomes depended on the overall quality of teacher-child interactions in a classroom and having a teacher who could speak DLLs’ home language (i.e., Spanish). Results indicated that DLLs who participated in an SEL program showed greater growth in social skills over time than DLLs in the control group. There was not evidence to suggest that the social skills outcomes depended on classroom-level teacher-child interactions, nor on having a Spanish-speaking teacher. Findings also revealed no significant difference in vocabulary growth over time among DLLs in the SEL program group versus DLLs in the control group. However, results indicated that DLL vocabulary outcomes depended on classroom-level teacher-child interaction quality. There was not evidence to suggest that vocabulary outcomes depended on having a Spanish-speaking teacher. These findings provide support for preschool SEL programs as a tool to enhance DLL social skills. They suggest the need for SEL programs to embed opportunities for quality teacher-child language interactions in curricula to enhance DLL vocabulary skills. Future research should continue to explore the contextual factors that impact DLL outcomes in SEL programs, as well as explore the relative effectiveness of various SEL programs. / School Psychology

This study explores the effects of engaging with contemporary dual language texts, specifically Cree texts, as a non-Cree educator intent on using the literature classroom as a place in which to explore cross-cultural communication. It considers how the in/accessibility of meaning when reading across cultural boundaries may be read as a challenge or a bridge for non-Cree readers. An interdisciplinary approach was employed as a research methodology to explore the potential interstices and intersections of Aboriginal epistemologies, decolonizing pedagogies, literary theories, and contemporary dual language texts. In order to begin defining the manner in which one perceives the significance of the code-switching and the varied translation practices within dual language texts, a reader response theory was developed and termed construal inquiry. As a decolonizing pedagogy that employs dialogic engagement with a text, construal inquiry is undrepinned by a self-reflective approach to meaning-making that is grounded in Luis Urrieta, Jr.'s (2007) notion of figured worlds, Jerome Bruner's (1991) model of narrative inquiry, and Mikhail Bakhtin's (1981) concept of heteroglossia. The research explores a collaborative approach to meaning-making with an awareness of how forms of subjectivities can affect reading practices. Texts that range from picture books to junior novels to autobiographical fiction are examined for the forms in which code-switching, culture, and identity can shape reader response and the dialogic discourse of cross-cultural communication. The research proposes experiential and contextual influences shape reading and interpretation and seeks to engage with how subjectivities affects pedagogical perspective, which negates a singular approach to linguistic and cultural representations and their interpretation. The research suggests that the complexities of negotiating meaning cross-culturally necessitiates relationship building with community members of the culture represented in a text and that engaging with code-switching in dual language texts using construal inquiry as a decolonizing pedagogy offers an opportunity to transform one's own subjectivity.

Master of Arts / Department of Modern Languages / Douglas K. Benson / The primary aim of this thesis is to examine the appropriate procedures needed to implement a Two Way Bilingual Immersion (TWBI) Program designed for an elementary school from grades K-4 and to make recommendations related to that process. Section I begins with an introduction to bilingual education and the different types of BE programs in the United States. It also examines the growth of these programs throughout the United States in recent years. Section II presents a general introduction to the characteristics and advantages of a TWBI program over other types of BE. The advantages and strategies presented here are intended to help teachers better understand the importance of using daily repetition of routine phrases, songs, and poems in their instruction, and the benefits to students in their overall academic progress as well. It also discusses the importance of language variation. Section III explores the implementation of a TWBI program in public schools. It highlights the importance of the selection of students, parental and community involvement, staff development and curriculum development. All of these factors are essential to having an effective program. Section IV presents a description of a specific TWBI program implemented in an elementary school in southwest Kansas. This section highlights many of the same components mentioned in Sections I-III as they apply to those being implemented in this specific school. This process can serve as a model for other schools interested in the implementation of a TWBI Program. Section V presents an explanation of second language acquisition and some of the advantages of learning a second language in a communicative classroom. Section VI presents my evaluation of five math and five reading activities used in a kindergarten class based on second-language acquisition theory. I also make some recommendations for pre and post activities, which can be used to activate the students’ schemata and check for comprehension.

English fluency is a strong predictor of later academic success in the U.S. (Espinosa, 2007) In fact, a child who enters kindergarten with weak English language skills is most at risk for academic failure and dropping out of school; while a child with strong home language (L1) skills is more likely to attain fluency in English (Espinosa, 2007). A large portion of young English learners are acquiring their first and second languages at the same time. It is important to young dual language learners (DLL) that research reveals the best ways to provide effective instruction which helps maintain the home language and supports acquisition of English. This study examined the effects of an early reading intervention on preschool-age DLL children’s early literacy skills. Phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge have been identified as skills that can transfer from L1 to English (L2) to enhance the acquisition of the second language among young children (Dickinson, 2004; Durgunoglu, Nagy, & Hancin-Bhatt, 1993). There is evidence of the effectiveness of shared-reading interventions to increase children’s oral language skills across languages, race/ethnicity, and SES. The current study embedded instruction in phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge in a group of interactive reading strategies known as Dialogic Reading (DR). The intervention was delivered in the children’s home language, Spanish. Children’s growth in emergent literacy skills in Spanish and in English was monitored using a single subject with multiple baselines across subjects design. Visual analysis of single subject graphs indicated gains across all participants. In addition, paired-samples t-tests showed significant growth between pre- and post-tests in both English and Spanish of participating children. The findings have implications for research, policy, professional practice, and home literacy practices.

Diverse student populations are increasing in local, state, and national settings. There are achievement gaps in college readiness which must be closed between various student demographic groups. It is important for schools to know what methods work best for language acquisition to close the gaps and open postsecondary opportunities for all students. The purpose of this sequential, explanatory, mixed-method, formative program evaluation study was to examine the effects of a dual language (DL) program on improving the college readiness of students. Guided by the framework of learning and second language acquisition, college readiness levels between DL and non-DL students were examined and the perceived effects of DL as described by parents, students, and teachers were explored. The quantitative portion of the study used descriptive statistics to examine various transcript academic measures between 11 DL and 11 English immersion students. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 2 DL students, 6 English Immersion and DL staff, and a DL parent. The English Leaner students in the DL program passed more Advanced Placement courses and took more Advanced Placement exams than the English Learner students in the English Immersion program. District stakeholders interviewed for the qualitative portion of the study reported positive effects of the DL program including high levels of college preparation and increased parent involvement for the DL program. The study includes a white paper with recommendations for improvement and expansion of the DL program. Positive social change can be created in school districts by implementing effective language programs to prepare all students for the increasing demands of universities and the workplace.

This research concerns a Kuna-Spanish bilingual elementary school in Panama City, founded for Kuna children by Kuna teachers. Based on ethnographic and linguistic fieldwork, this research investigates the socio-cultural context for the emergence of the school and the ways that students, teachers and parents, together with Kuna elders, navigate the path of indigenous schooling. The process of negotiating linguistic and cultural meanings in Kuna-language education includes both "traditionalized" Kuna forms of learning and informal education in and around the home. These various foundations of Kuna knowledge, from the use of Kuna oral history to eating Kuna food in the home, are incorporated into the curriculum in various ways, highlighting the potential of schooling as a place of knowledge production for indigenous peoples that is culturally inclusive. At the same time, the manner in which Kuna identity is indexed in the school is uneven. It is liberating in some moments while very restrictive in others, reflecting similar patterns, often in relation to state-sponsored notions of "multiculturalism" in the Kuna community and in the broader context of Panamanian society. In order to fully explore the complexities of the school and its workings, this research explores the Kuna experience in Panama City, where more than half of the Kuna population currently resides. This dissertation is a contribution to the fields of linguistic anthropology and the anthropology of education, analyzing the case of an urban Kuna school that employs both Western and indigenous pedagogy and content, with specific implications for studies of language socialization, bilingual education and educational politics for indigenous peoples. / text

This case study explores the Spanish speaking and writing practices of middle-school Latina/o youth in Miami, Florida. Its ethnographic approach aims to re-present students learning English as a second language as emerging bilinguals (Escamilla, 2006; García, 2009) who access, maintain, and develop their first language to varying degrees while learning English. Through my position as an attached member (Wax, 1971) of a Spanish-English dual language school, I examined students' Spanish production within larger socio-historical and institutional frames of reference. Shadowing students in their Spanish-instruction classes (e.g., Mathematics, Humanities, and Spanish), I drew from observations, student work, interviews with students, educators and parents, and student focus groups. Analysis of data sources reveal that students, together with influential adults, created and received messages about language--ideologies of language as standard, evolving, and dynamic. Youth engaged in normative translanguaging and transliteracy practices in mathematics class; confronted institutionally-created labels and articulated their bilingual identities as members of two language programs; and developed their Spanish writing as part of varying, yet often prescriptive, literacy instruction. This study adds to the limited research on Latina/o middle-school experiences and K-12 heritage language education. This research has pedagogical and language policy implications for those who educate and oversee the education of bilingual youth.