Rapid population growth and urbanization in semi-arid and arid regions has led to alterations in the water, carbon (C), and nitrogen (N) cycles (Gallo et al. 2014), prompting demands for mitigation strategies. Green Infrastructure (GI) is one of the methods used in urban storm water mitigation that delays and attenuates stormwater runoff by storing water in vegetated depressions. In the Southwest these depressions, also called bioswales, have the potential to act as biogeochemical hot spots, encouraging nutrient cycling, infiltration, plant growth, and microbial activity (McClain et al. 2003). An influx of water to GI initiates a combination of physical and microbial processes that result in increased CO2 efflux and N mineralization known as the Birch Effect (Birch, 1958). This study examines GI in Tucson, AZ through inducing an artificial precipitation regime and determining how soil properties, GI design, and biogeochemical characteristics influence the response. In natural systems it has been shown that soil moisture, soil properties, organic matter, length of dry period, nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen, and microbial biomass influence soil respiration and nitrogen mineralization (Borken and Matzner 2009). The purpose of this study is to determine the role that the Birch Effect plays in urban stormwater GI. Additionally we seek to determine how soil and nutrient properties and precipitation regime affect the amplitude of the response. It was found that soils from GI features tend to have higher concentrations of organic matter, total carbon, and total nitrogen, as well as higher water holding capacity and lower bulk density. It was also shown that soils originating from GI features tend to illicit a greater CO2 flux upon rewetting than soils from adjacent areas. The linear relationships found between % clay, pH, bulk density, WHC, SOM, TC, and TN suggest that the reason for the greater response to wetting is due to the altered physiochemical composition. The results of this study can be utilized to increase microbial activity and remediation in urban GI features. This fits into the larger goal of GI to help mitigate many of the issues associated with Urban Stream Syndrome (USS) such as flashier hydrography response, increased nutrient and contaminant concentrations, increased erosion, altered channel morphology and reduced biodiversity (Meyers et al. 2005).

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Results from this study enables a better understanding of groundwater surface water interactions in the TMG, particularly regarding aquatic ecosystems. It has also highlighted the necessity to do proper impact assessments before proceeding with bulk abstraction from this important aquifer. The results also demonstrated the importance of differentiating between real groundwater and non-groundwater discharge contributions to surface hydrology and where these interface areas are located. / South Africa

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Drylands cover 40% of the earth’s terrestrial surface supporting over 2 billion people, the majority of whom reside in developing nations characterised by high population growth rates. This imposes pressure on the already limited water resources and in some dryland regions such as southern Africa, the origins and dynamics of rainfall are not well understood. Research has also tended to focus on factors limiting (e.g., rainfall) than sustaining productivity in drylands. However, non-rainfall water (NRW) e.g., fog and dew can supplement and/or exceed rainfall in these environments and could potentially be exploited as potable water resources. Much remains unknown in terms of NRW formation mechanisms, origins, evolution, potability and potential impact of global climate change on these NRW dependent ecosystems. Using Namibia as a proxy for drylands and developing nations, this dissertation applies stable isotopes of water (δ2H, δ18O, δ17O and d-excess), cokriging and trajectory analysis methods to understand ecohydrological processes. Results suggest that locally generated NRW may be a regular occurrence even in coastal areas such as the Namib Desert, and that what may appear as a single fog event may consist of different fog types co-occurring. These results are important because NRW responses to global climate change is dependent on the source, groundwater vs. ocean, and being able to distinguish the two will allow for more accurate modelling. I also demonstrate, that fog and dew formation are controlled by different fractionation processes, paving the way for plant water use strategy studies and modelling responses to global climate change. The study also suggests that current NRW harvesting technologies could be improved and that the potability of this water could raise some public health concerns related to trace metal and biological contamination. At the same time, the dissertation concludes that global precipitation isoscapes do not capture local isotope variations in Namibia, suggesting caution when applied to drylands and developing nations. Finally, the dissertation also reports for the first time, δ17O precipitation results for Namibia, novel isotope methods to differentiate synoptic from local droughts and suggests non-negligible moisture contributions from the Atlantic Ocean due to a possible sub-tropical Atlantic Ocean dipole.

Peatland ecosystems are important as natural climate regulators for their capacity to store carbon over long-time scales. Carbon cycling in peatlands in the boreal ecozone of Canada has been more widely studied than the boreal shield of Ontario, where peat depths are thinner and peatlands spatially smaller. The reliance on fill and spill hydrologic connectivity makes the water table dynamics of peatlands in Ontario’s Eastern Georgian Bay (EGB) region of the Ontario shield ecozone sensitive to rain and drought periods. The drying of wetlands in the EGB region decreases moss productivity and increases the ecosystem’s vulnerability to wildfire through an increase in the water table depth. In an effort to understand how peatlands respond to interannual climate variability and wildfire, we examined the role of regional climate patterns on growing season CO2 exchange from an Ontario shield peatland and completed a post-wildfire assessment of CO2 exchange patterns in a recently burned peatland for the first and second year post-wildfire. Using the eddy covariance technique, we analyzed 5-years of growing season CO2 exchange data from 2016 to 2020 from an unburned peatland and 2-years of growing season CO2 exchange data from a burned peatland (2019-2020) in EGB. Plot-scale CO2 exchange measurements were also completed within the burned peatland jointly with abiotic variables and vegetation community surveys. Water table depth was identified as an important variable to explain total summer CO2 uptake (GPP) and net ecosystem exchange (NEE), where years of considerable rainfall maintained a water table near the peat surface and perpetuated high vegetation productivity. Summer total ecosystem respiration (ER) was greatly influenced by preceding winter and spring air temperature, with warmer winter air temperatures leading to summers of increased total ER. Warmer winter air temperatures also initiated water flow across the landscape, thus reviving plant and microbial activity following snow cover. These findings have important implications for the function of these shallow Ontario shield peatlands in a warming climate, where decreased water availability with projected increased temperatures and evapotranspiration leaves peatlands at risk of a net loss of C over the summer with lower water table. In the burned landscape, there was lower GPP in the summer (2019) compared to the wet summer of 2020, however the burned landscape continued to act as a net CO2 sink for the summer season of both years. The rapid recovery of vegetation across the wildfire-disturbed landscape has important implications for the function of these peatlands over time, with the ability for continued carbon uptake and reinstating peat accumulation processes. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Peatlands represent a globally significant carbon stock and wildfire is the largest disturbance affecting these ecosystems. Climate change scenarios suggest that increases in evapotranspiration are likely to exceed increases in precipitation in northern latitudes, raising concern that peatlands will experience substantial drying. Drying may increase peat burn severity and, when coupled with expected increases in total wildfire area burned, may exceed peatland resilience to wildfire. While previous studies have examined both peatland vulnerability to wildfire and post-fire recovery, these studies have not examined the driest peatlands on the landscape that are likely to be the most susceptible to the combined effects of climate change and wildfire. For this reason, this thesis examined the hydrogeological and ecohydrological controls on burn severity and post-fire recovery in peatlands in the Boreal Plains of Alberta, where peatlands exist at the limit of their climate tolerance. High burn severity was prevalent at the margins of a small peatland isolated from groundwater flow, where average burn depths were five-fold greater than in the middle of the peatland. Deep burning was attributable to the effect of dynamic hydrological conditions on margin peat bulk density and moisture. Following wildfire, water availability was a key determinant of post-fire moss recovery. Both high and low burn severity can decrease post-fire water availability by altering peat hydrophysical properties. Post-fire recovery was also dependent on large-scale hydrological processes that influence peatland water tables, specifically, hydrogeological setting. Small peatlands isolated from groundwater flow systems had lower peatland moss recolonization rates at both their middles and margins due to drier conditions. This was important because the margins of these same peatlands were prone to deep burning. Therefore, deep burning is likely altering peatland margin ecohydrological function and may be facilitating a regime shift from peatland to mineral upland. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This study examined the usefulness of remote sensing to monitor peatlands, and more specifically Sphagnum moss ‘health’. Results from this study show that thermal imaging can be used to monitor Sphagnum productivity, as when the surface temperature of Sphagnum exceeds a threshold value (30.8 °C in the field and 18.2 °C in the laboratory), Sphagnum quickly changes from being productive to being unproductive. The Enhanced Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (ENDVI) can also be used in a similar manner, where if the ENDVI value is high (above 0.11 in the field and -0.12 in the laboratory), Sphagnum will be productive, and otherwise, it will be stressed. A classification scheme was developed to monitor peatland recovery to fire disturbance. By utilizing the ENDVI, leaf area index and aboveground biomass within a recovering peatland can be mapped, as well as the recovery trajectory of the groundcover. The findings of this study highlight the potential use of remote sensing to assess the driving factors of Sphagnum moss stress, as well as quickly and expansively aid in peatland recovery trajectory. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

<p>The objective of this thesis is to examine the changes to peatland ecohydrological processes as a result of wildfire disturbance in forested ombrotrophic peatlands of the Boreal Plains. The hydrology and atmospheric exchanges of energy and water were examined at two peatlands in northern Alberta: one recently burned and the other approximately 75 years since fire.</p> <p>Wildfire resulted in little change in net radiation flux to the peatland during the snow-free period. A decrease in the net radiation flux during the late winter was caused by the loss of the tree canopy and the increase in albedo during winter. While summer albedo largely returned to pre-fire values within two years after fire, the amount of solar radiation reaching the burned peat surface increased by nearly 50%. As a result, surface evaporation increased by an amount only marginally greater than the loss of transpiration. The net result on the water balance was a modest increase in water losses during the course of the summer, resulting in a lower water table. Water table decline per unit of evaporation was higher due to a decrease in specific yield, likely from a combination of post-fire peat compression and the combustion of high specific yield surface peat during wildfire. The combination of lower water table and enhanced evaporation cause greater pore-water pressures after fire, particularly in hummocks. The hydrological regime of hollows was not significantly altered by wildfire, despite the larger depth of burn in the hollows.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Rivers and their surrounding riparian and subsurface ecosystems, known as river corridors, are important landscape features that provide a myriad of ecological and societal benefits. While the importance of riverine flooding has been widely acknowledged and extensively studied, very little research has been conducted on the interactions between river channels and their adjacent floodplains. The importance of this hydrologic connectivity between rivers and floodplains has been emphasized in recent decades and now ecological engineering techniques such as stream restoration are often utilized to restore connectivity between streams and their riparian ecosystems. Despite its ubiquity in practice, there are still many basic components of river-floodplain connectivity that are not well understood. Furthermore, a lack of cost-effective monitoring techniques makes sustainable management of river corridors quite challenging. Thus, the overall goals of my dissertation were: 1) develop user-friendly river corridor monitoring techniques utilizing cost-effective approaches such as time-lapse digital imagery and satellite remote sensing and 2) identify the effects of anthropogenic activities on river corridor hydrologic and biogeochemical processes that occur at varying spatial and temporal scales during flood events. These goals were addressed through five independent studies that span spatiotemporal scales. The five studies utilized a combination of novel remote sensing, hydrologic/hydraulic modeling, and high frequency spatial sampling techniques to analyze river corridor dynamics. Results highlight that digital imagery and satellite remote sensing can be effective tools for monitoring river corridors in data scare regions. Additionally, impounding streams and river corridors alters floodplain connectivity and biogeochemical processing of reactive solutes such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Findings from this work highlight the important role that spatial and temporal scale plays in river corridor dynamics. Overall, this research provides new analytical techniques and findings that can be used to effectively monitor and manage river corridors. / PHD / Rivers are important landscape features that provide basic societal needs such as drinking water, water for agricultural irrigation, and hydroelectric energy. Engineers have traditionally sought to manage rivers for these purposes while also minimizing flooding. However, flooding actually provides a number of environmental benefits such as increased aquatic biodiversity and removal of excess sediment and pollutants from rivers. This notion of environmentally friendly flooding is a relatively new concept and much is still unknown about how these processes differ at varying scales. Additionally, there is currently a lack of techniques for monitoring such processes primarily due to the cost required for equipment and labor. Therefore, the goals of this dissertation were twofold: 1) develop cost-effective and user-friendly monitoring techniques that can be used to study river flooding dynamics and 2) examine the impacts of river flooding dynamics at three different spatial scales ranging from a small stream to a large watershed. This was accomplished through five separate case studies that examine rivers and watersheds of varying sizes at varying time scales. The studies utilized several emerging technologies that required a combination of field monitoring, computer simulations of flood dynamics, and satellite imagery to gain a better understanding of river flood hydrology and water quality. A key finding was the important role that scale plays in both spatial and temporal domains. Utilizing varying spatial and temporal scales allowed for identification of different processes that occur across a range of river and watershed sizes. Overall, this work can be used to better inform future river management and restoration decisions.

[Truncated abstract] Root-induced changes to soil hydraulic properties (SHP) are an essential component in understanding the hydrology of an ecosystem, and the resilience of these to climate change. However, at present our capacity to predict how roots will modify SHP and the consequences of this is limited because our knowledge of the processes and effects are highly fragmented. Also, current models used to investigate the relationship between plants and root-induced changes to SHP are based on empirical relationships which have limited applicability to the various and often contrasting ecosystems that occur. This thesis focuses specifically on the quantifying the processes by which roots modify SHP and developing models that can predict changes to these and the water balance. Both increase and decreases in saturated hydraulic conductivity have been attributed to the presence of roots. In general, decreases occur when the root system is relatively young, and increases occur when the roots senesce and begin to decay, creating voids for water flow. The evidence available suggests that the change in pore geometry created by roots is the dominant process by which roots modify SHP because they are more permanent and of a greater magnitude than changes to fluid properties or soil structure. We first quantified the effects of wheat roots on SHP of a coarse sand with a laboratory experiment where we measured changes in both SHP and the root system at 3, 5, 7 and 9 weeks after sowing (weeks). ... The main message that can be drawn from this thesis is that root-induced changes to SHP are dynamic, and dependent upon the combination of soil texture, connectivity of root-modified pores and the ratio of root radius to pore radius. Consequently, root-induced changes to the water balance have the same dependencies. The work in this thesis provides a significant first step towards improving our capacity to predict how roots modify soil hydraulic properties. By defining the range for the parameters used to predict how the soil is modified by roots, we are able to make quantitative assessments of how a property such as hydraulic conductivity will change for a realistic circumstance. Also , for the first time we have measured changes in soil hydraulic properties and roots and have been able to establish why a rapid change from a root-induced decrease to increase in Ks occurred. The link between physiological stage of the root system, and the changes that are likely to occur has implications for understanding how roots modify SHP: it may provide an effective tool for predicting when the switch from a decrease to increase occurs. Further work is required to test the validity of the assumptions we have made in our models that predict changes to SHP. While we have endeavoured to define the parameter space for those parameters that we have introduced, there is still some uncertainty about the connectivity of root-modified pores. Also, the parameterisation of the soil domain with roots is based upon work that measures 'fine' roots only which may not provide a true representation of the effect trees and perennial shrubs have on SHP. It is inevitable that root-induced changes to SHP will affect the fate of solutes in the soil, and temporal dynamics of root-induced changes to these may be particularly important for the timing of nutrient and pesticide leaching.

[Truncated abstract] Understanding the ecohydrological dynamics of native vegetation can provide a benchmark for future efforts to restore landscape hydrology and allow predictions of potential landscape responses to climate uncertainty and associated changes in vegetation cover. The key drivers of evapotranspiration (Et) involved in maintaining a hydrological balance that minimises deep drainage in semi-arid ecosystems operate at a range of scales, and in this thesis I assessed the water relations of functionally and taxonomically diverse plant communities in south-western Australia from the leaf-level to ecosystem scale. For three key communities; heath shrubland, mallee (small multistemmed eucalypt) -heath, and open eucalypt woodland, populating a typical catenary sequence of soil types along a slope, I addressed the following questions: 1) What are the predominant water use strategies of wheatbelt native plant communities and what underlying trade-offs determine the distribution of plant water use strategies along the topographical gradient? 2) What are the roles of soil water and hydraulic limitation in controlling the spatial and temporal dynamics of transpiration in different functional types? 3) What is the magnitude and partitioning of total Et in the woodland community and what processes determine Et fluxes on a seasonal and annual basis? 4) What are the seasonal differences in Et among contrasting community-types and how do these patterns relate to canopy attributes and transpiration capacity along the topographical gradient? A key philosophical step in working with species-rich communities was to develop the concept of 'hydraulic functional types' (HFTs) to identify groupings of species using associations of physiological and morphological traits that define their hydrological functioning. .... However, as shallow soils dried during spring and summer, Et fluxes were significantly lower at the heath site (0.35 versus 0.66 mm day-1 for the woodland in February), demonstrating that the seasonality of Et fluxes differentiates communityscale contributions to regional water balance. Land-surface exchange of water over native vegetation is by no means uniform, but varies according to the spatial and temporal availability of water along topographical gradients. In general, shallow soils present fewer opportunities for water use partitioning and favour drought hardiness and a transpiration response that tracks recent rainfall patterns, whereas deeper soils promote greater differentiation in water use strategy and support canopies responsive to atmospheric demand. This thesis provides a unique description of ecosystem water balance in a global biodiversity hotspot by viewing complex vegetation mosaics in terms of their relevant hydrological units. This information is fundamental to sustainable agroforestry and revegetation efforts and our ability to gauge possible changes in vegetation structure and function under a changing climate.