<p>Arundo donax is an invasive species that mostly impacts on sensitive riparian ecosystems. Arundo is also invasive in South Africa, though less is known about its ecology, biology, and impacts. Since California and the Western Cape of South AFrica have similar Mediterranean-type climates, we could assume that the impacts of Arundo on ecosystems in California are likely to be similar in the Western Cape, and that control methods used could be extrapolated for use in South Africa. This thesis attempted to determine what impact Arundo has on biodiversity at the community-ecosystem level.</p>

Global climate change is one of the defining issues of the 21st century. The phenomenon of natural climate variation being pushed beyond normal ranges has been fueled largely by industrial activities and those which support them (i.e. land-use change and the over-exploitation of natural resources). The urgency is well established with reports demonstrating an increased occurrence of rare, highly damaging weather events, and shifts in the natural range of species. The necessity of action on climate change has resulted in the development of novel global initiatives designed to address the problem across global and regional scales. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) is emblematic of this new wave of conservation strategy. It brings together parties which are often seen as opposed on environmental issues in collaborative environmental practise. This thesis explores the development of REDD+ as an effective and equitable solutions to this problem. REDD+ is a policy architecture designed for global deployment, the success of which will depend largely upon the engagement and involvement of local community groups. Community forest management (CFM) may inform the REDD+ design process, and enhance both land-use strategies by way of synergy. The pathway to that point is, however, uncertain and marred with potential pitfalls. This thesis uses the instructive and critical lens of political ecology to assess the potential for integrating greater CFM elements into the REDD+ policy structure. It explores how the narratives of CFM and REDD+ clash at discursive levels, while also identifying elements of each which may make them mutually beneficial. The thesis finds that much of the conflict between positions on REDD+ are the result of contrasting environmental understandings, some of which are informed by negative experiences with past environmental conservation initiatives. Greater community-centric attributes may assist in improving the local and regional acceptability of REDD+ projects by appealing to the “alternative” values of forest-dependent peoples. Some suggested policy modifications are made to improve the overall design of REDD+ to be inclusive of the concerns of forest user groups, and potential areas for future research projects are discussed. / Thesis (Master, Environmental Studies) -- Queen's University, 2013-01-28 14:57:55.951

The Effects of Tropical Forest Management on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning Eleanor M. Slade 1. Between 35 % and 50 % of all closed-canopy tropical forest has been lost, and the rate of deforestation continues to increase throughout the tropics. Despite a wealth of literature on the effects of tropical forest disturbance on the diversity and composition of a variety of taxa, there is still no clear consensus on the value of disturbed forests for biodiversity. 2. If forest management practises are to be sustainable in the long-term they should maintain both biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (the interactions and processes of the ecosystem), as well as a timber harvest. However, few studies have investigated the extent to which ecosystem functioning is reduced in logged forests. The effects of different logging intensities on a variety of taxa, and the ecosystem processes with which they are associated, were assessed in the Danum Valley Conservation Area in Sabah (Malaysian Borneo). 3. Even under high logging intensities, the forests of Sabah appear to have been managed in a way that maintains timber yields in the short-term. However, other aspects of forest structure had been affected, which could have important consequences ecologically, and for the long-term sustainability of timber harvests. 4. Combining field studies with manipulative experiments allows assessment of the impacts of species changes associated with habitat modification on measures of ecosystem functioning. Dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) functional group richness and composition were manipulated in a series of field experiments. Certain functional groups and species were found to have a greater impact on ecosystem functioning than others; nevertheless a full complement of species was needed to maintain full ecosystem functioning. 5. Dung beetles appeared to be relatively robust to changes in forest structure associated with selective logging, but species richness was reduced with high-intensity logging. There was a corresponding decrease in ecosystem functioning (dung and seed removal) with a decrease in species richness, and a decrease in the biomass of large nocturnal tunnellers, suggesting that although some species are dominant, rare species are also needed to preserve full ecosystem functioning. 6. A complex interaction between birds and ants resulted in reduced herbivory of seedlings of the important timber tree, Parashorea malaanonan, in some instances. However, this interaction was not affected by either selective or high intensity logging. Seedfall of P. malaanonan, was reduced in logged forest compared to primary forest. Despite insect seed predation being higher in primary forest, there was still successful recruitment during a non-mast year. Parasitism of insect-predated seeds was found to be inversely density dependent, and was higher in logged forest where seed predation was lower. 7. The results of this thesis suggest that the forests of Sabah appear to be being logged under a management system that is compatible with sustainable timber management, but not necessarily sustainable forest management. Low intensity selective logging seems to preserve much of the original forest structure, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning compared to logging at higher intensities. However, ecosystem processes were variable in their response to logging, suggesting that management decisions should be based on the consideration of multiple taxa and processes.

Measuring the impact of physical disturbance on macrofaunal communities and sediment composition is important given the increased demand for the exploitation and disturbance of marine ecosystems. The aim of the present investigation was to provide a comprehensive study about the extent to which the disturbance (especially aggregate dredging) may affect benthic ecosystem function. The first part of the thesis concerns a field investigation of the impacts of dredging on the benthic community and related ecosystem function which was measured by different approaches including traditional methods based on benthic community structure and a more novel approach based on the functional traits of benthic organisms. The assessment was done by comparing dredged sites (Area 222, southeast England) with nearby undisturbed reference sites from the years 2001 to 2004 and in 2007. In general, low dredging intensity did not appear to impose great impacts on the benthic community and related ecosystem function compared to the higher intensity activity. Most of the analyses suggested that the community at the high dredging intensity site had yet to recover at the end of this study period. Among many factors related to the recovery of the benthic community was sediment composition where gravel deposits appeared to support a faster biological recovery. Meanwhile, the recovery of species with specific traits, such as tube-building and filter feeding also indicate a faster recovery for the whole community. The experimental work to determine different impacts of Hediste diversicolor on its surrounding depending on its relative size is discussed in Appendix 1.

Human activity can affect the soil in ways which are traceable long after the land has been given over to other uses, and past land management practices can be reconstructed by investigation of these relict characteristics. In some regions the addition of fertilising materials to the arable soils has created artificially deepened anthropogenic topsoils which can be over 1m thick. Such relict soils are found all over the world, and are widespread in north-western Europe. This work focuses on the anthropogenic soils in the Northern Isles, which were formed from the Neolithic period up until the 20th century. Three multi-period sites were investigated using thin section micromorphology, organic/inorganic phosphate analysis, soil magnetism, particle size distribution, loss on ignition and soil pH. Current views of anthropogenic soil formation, based on pedological investigation and historical documentary sources, are that they are formed as a result of the addition of domestic animal manures and turf used as animal bedding to arable areas. This project sets out to test the hypothesis that in fact anthropogenic soils are the result of a wide range of formation processes which took place over extended periods of time. The hypothesis has been tested by analysing soils and associated middens of different dates, which have been sealed and protected by blown sand deposits. The results have shown that in the Neolithic period arable soils were created by cultivating the settlement's midden heaps as well as by adding midden material to the surrounding soils. In the Bronze Age human manure, ash and domestic waste were spread onto the fields around the settlements to create arable topsoils up to 35cm thick. In the Iron Age arable agriculture was intensified by selective use of organic manures on one of the sites investigated, but organic waste material was not used as efficiently as it was in later periods, and on both sites it was allowed to accumulate within the settlements. In the Norse period, when the intensive system used in historical times appears to have originated, organic waste may have been used more efficiently. These changes appear to reflect a greater organisation of land resources and manuring strategies and increased demand for arable production over time.

Small-scale fisheries employ many millions of people around the world, and are particularly important in developing countries, where the dependency on marine resources is high and livelihood diversification options are scarce. In many areas of the world however, small-scale fisheries are at risk which threatens the food security and wellbeing of coastal people. Small-scale fisheries management has in many cases been insufficient and new comprehensive approaches are recommended to achieve social-ecological sustainability in the long-term. The aim of this thesis is to analyze empirically how social-ecological elements of seagrass-associated small-scale fisheries in the Western Indian Ocean region can be addressed for a transformation from the current mostly degraded state to more sustainable social-ecological systems and secure future livelihoods. The main method used was semi-structured interviews with local fishers. The main findings show the crucial contributions seagrass-associated small-scale fisheries make to food security and income generation and highlight the need to acknowledge the social-ecological importance of seagrasses in the seascape (Paper I). A discrepancy between low societal gains of the fishing of sea urchin predator fish species and their crucial importance in the food web (in controlling sea urchin populations and the associated grazing pressure on seagrasses) was identified (Paper II). These results suggest catch-and-release practice of sea urchin predator fish species, which could contribute to more balanced predator – sea urchin – seagrass food webs in the long run. The use of illegal dragnets was identified as a major threat to local seagrass meadows (Paper IV). Institutional elements influencing the use of such destructive dragnet were identified to be normative, cultural-cognitive and economic, which constitutes an institutional misfit to the current emphasis on regulative elements in a hierarchical manner (Paper III). Concerning future co-management initiatives, gear restrictions and education were the favoured management measures among all fishers (Paper IV). A majority of fishers were willing to participate in monitoring and controls, and most fishers thought they themselves and their communities would benefit most from seagrass-specific management. These findings highlight the need for actions on multiple scales, being the local-, management-, policy- and governance levels. The suggested actions include: education and exchange of ecological and scientific knowledge, gear management including the cessation of dragnet fishing, strengthening of local institutions, an active participation of fishers in enforcement of existing rules and regulations and an introduction of adequate alternative livelihood options. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

La partie nord du Système du courant de Humboldt (NSCH) couvre moins de 0.1% de la surface océanique mondiale mais produit plus de poisons, en particulier d'anchois du Pérou (Engraulis ringens), par unité de surface que n'importe quelle autre région du monde. Bien que ce système produise suffisamment de macrozooplancton pour alimenter les populations de poisson fourrage, le manque d'informations sur ce compartiment limite nos capacités d'étude. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier la dynamique de la distribution spatiotemporelle de la biomasse en macrozooplancton du NSCH en relation avec l'environnement physique et les poissons fourrage, à différentes échelles. Pour ce faire une méthode acoustique bi-fréquences a été développée et appliqué à des séries de données acoustiques historiques. Des informations à haute résolution ont ainsi pu être extraite sur la biomasse et les patrons de distribution du macrozooplancton, de la galathée pélagique 'munida', des poissons et des autres compartiments. Cette méthode nous a également permis d'estimer l'extension verticale de la communauté épipélagique (ZVEEC). Nous avons démontré que ZVEEC coïncide avec la limite supérieure de la zone de minimum d'oxygène (ZMO), ce qui permet de produire des donnés spatialisées à haute résolution de la limite supérieure de la ZMO et d'estimer le volume d'habitat de l'anchois. Notre estimation de biomasse en macrozooplancton, environ quatre fois supérieures aux estimations antérieures, est en accord avec les découvertes récentes sur l'écologie trophique des poissons fourrage du NSCH et fournit des éléments étayant les théories actuelles sur l'origine de la haute productivité en poissons du NSCH. L'étude des impacts des structures physiques de submeso- et mesoéchelle sur la distribution du macrozooplancton supporte l'hypothèse d'une structuration de type 'bottom-up'. Nous avons également mis en évidence l'impact de la structuration spatiale du macrozooplancton sur la distribution des poissons fourrage. Les données physiques et biologiques à haute résolution obtenues grâce à cette étude ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives pour réaliser des études écologiques intégrées à échelles multiples et pour calibrer les modèles biogéochimiques, trophiques ou End-to-End. / The Northern Humboldt Current system (NHCS) represents less than 0.1% of the world ocean surface but produces more fish, mainly Peruvian anchovy (Engraulis ringens), per unit area than any other region in the world. Although this system produces enough macrozooplankton to feed its high production of forage fish, the paucity of information on zooplankton hampers research in the system. The objective of this study was to investigate the multiscale dynamics of the spatiotemporal distribution of the macrozooplankton biomass off Peru in relation to the physical environment and their fish predators. For that a bi-frequency acoustic method was developed and applied to extract, from historical acoustic data, high-resolution information on the biomass and the patterns of distribution of macrozooplankton, the pelagic red squad 'munida', fish and other marine compartments. This method also allows estimating the vertical extension of this epipelagic community (ZVEEC). We demonstrated that ZVEEC coincide with the upper limit of the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ), which allowed both producing high-resolution spatial data of the upper limit of the OMZ and estimating the volume habitat of anchovy. The estimated macrozooplankton biomass was about four times higher than previously reported. This estimate is in agreement with the recent findings on forage fish trophic ecology and supports the current hypotheses explaining the NHCS high fish production. The study of the impacts of the submeso- and mesoscale physical structures on macrozooplankton provided evidence of the bottom-up physical effect on the distribution of macrozooplankton biomass. We also found further evidence of the structuring bottom-up effect that macrozooplankton exert on forage fish. The high-resolution biological and physical data obtained in this study opens new perspective to perform integrated multiscale ecological studies and to calibrate biogeochemical, trophic and End-to-End models.

Nature provides various services to society that humans are completely dependent on for their survival. These services are called ecosystem services, and can be, for example, clean air, clean water and pollination of crops. To live close to nature and green areas is also important for our well being. Although we are often aware of the values that nature creates and its importance, green areas are often replaced with buildings and roads as the big cities grow and densify. The ongoing densification of cities, combined with the projected climate changes will result in that the capacity of storm water pipes is likely to be insufficient during major rainstorms which can create big problems with, for example, flooding. The increasing challenges of storm water management resulted in that open storm water solutions began to be used as supplement to the storm water pipes. Open water solutions are designed to take care of water in a way that mimics nature's way of taking care of rainfall. These open water systems are a form of urban ecosystems and, in addition to dampen the water flows, can provide a range of other ecosystem services. The aim of this thesis was to create a method for integrating and valuing ecosystem services in the design of open storm water management and thus make the values from ecosystem services visible. The thesis was limited to investigating seven different open storm water solutions: green roofs, infiltration of lawns, temporary damming on specially constructed flood areas, percolation trenches, natural streams, ponds and wetlands. In addition to the ability to manage and control large water flows, 11 ecosystem services were identified that can be obtained from the open storm water solutions: drinking water, non-potable water, natural water purification, carbon sequestration and storage, local climate control and air purification, noise reduction, pollination, habitat and biodiversity, activity based cultural values, aesthetic values and resource for research and education. The values of the ecosystem services were determined in a semi-quantitative survey in which 16 people responded to questions examining to what extent they consider that ecosystem services can be obtained in the various storm water solutions. The values of the ecosystem services also depend largely on the site's potential and how the solutions are designed. Factors that can affect the value of the ecosystem services with respect to these aspects were investigated in a literature study and in the questionnaire study. The results of the literature study and questionnaire study formed the basis for the non-site adapted assessment tool that was developed as the last step in the thesis. The tool was designed in Excel and consists of three steps. Step 1 aims to weight the ecosystem services by the sites’ potential, step 2 involves the actual valuation and possible adaption to alternative design, and in step 3 a factor is calculated as a measure of the values obtained from ecosystem services created from open storm water solutions in relation to the total area. The aim is that the assessment tool should be used as a complement to an investigation about which storm water treatment solution that is most suitable in a project. / Naturområden och grönytor levererar olika tjänster som människan är helt beroende av för sin överlevnad. Dessa tjänster kallas ekosystemtjänster och är exempelvis ren luft, rent vatten och pollinering av grödor. Närhet till naturen och grönområden har också stor betydelse för människans välbefinnande, till exempel genom att ha en stressdämpande effekt. Trots att vi är medvetna om värdena som naturen skapar, byggs grönytor i städer bort i takt med att de växer och förtätas. Täta städer innebär stora arealer hårdgjorda ytor vilket också resulterar i större volymer dagvatten då nederbörden inte kan infiltrera ner i marker och istället rinner av på ytan. Ledningarnas kapacitet riskerar att överskridas vid stora skyfall vilket kan orsaka stora problem med översvämningar. Problemet kommer dessutom förvärras i framtiden med de väntade klimatförändringarna. Ökande utmaningar med dagvattenhanteringen har resulterat i att öppna dagvattenlösningar började användas som komplement till ledningar under mark. Öppna dagvattenlösningar innebär att vattnet tas omhand på ett sätt som efterliknar naturens sätt att ta hand om nederbörd, och är en form av urbana ekosystem som, utöver att dämpa vattenflöden, kan tillhandahålla en rad andra ekosystemtjänster. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att skapa en metod för att integrera och värdera ekosystemtjänster i utformningen av öppen dagvattenhantering och därmed synliggöra ekosystemtjänsternas värden. Examensarbetet avgränsades till att utreda sju olika öppna dagvattenlösningar: gröna tak, infiltration på gräsytor, tillfällig uppdämning på översvämningsytor, svackdiken, naturliga diken och bäckar, dammar samt våtmarker. 12 ekosystemtjänster identifierades kunna erhållas från de öppna dagvattenlösningarna. Dessa var dricksvattenresurs, icke drickbart vatten, vattenrening, kolbindning och lagring, klimatreglering och luftrening, bullerreducering, flödesreglering, pollinering, livsmiljöer och biologisk mångfald, aktivitetsbaserade kulturella värden, estetiska värden samt resurs för forskning och utbildning. Ekosystemtjänsternas värden hos de olika dagvattenlösningarna bestämdes i en semikvantitativ enkätstudie där 16 personer fick värdera dagvattenlösningarnas kapacitet att bidra till de olika ekosystemtjänsterna. Värdena beror också till stor del på platsens förutsättningar och hur de utformas. Vilka faktorer som kan påverka värdet av ekosystemtjänsterna med avseende på dessa aspekter utreddes i en kvalitativ litteraturstudie. Resultatet från litteraturstudien samt enkätstudien utgjorde grunden för det icke platsanpassade värderingsverktyget som togs fram som det sista steget i examensarbetet. Verktyget utformades i Excel och består av tre steg där steg 1 syftar till att vikta ekosystemtjänsternas värden efter platsens förutsättningar, i steg 2 sker själva värderingen samt en eventuell anpassning till alternativ utformning och i steg 3 beräknas en faktor fram som är ett mått på ekosystemtjänsternas värden som fås från öppna dagvattenlösningar i förhållande till den totala arean. Syftet är att värderingsverktyget ska användas som ett komplement till en utredning om vilken dagvattenhantering som är lämpligast i ett projekt.

Termites are important ecosystem engineers in tropical and sub-tropical terrestrial regions where they influence ecosystem processes by altering the physical and chemical structure of the habitat. Termites affect nutrient availability by decomposition and comminution (shredding) of organic matter and act as agents of bioturbation as they re-work substrates during the construction of nests, tunnels and runways. At present we have a relatively good understanding of termite diversity patterns in the tropics through the extensive use of the standardised transect sampling protocol by Eggleton et al. (1995). These diversity data suggest that there is a functional difference in termite assemblage structure, and potentially in termite abundance and biomass, among comparable habitats across continents. However due to the lack of comparable abundance and biomass data from South America this has not previously been confirmed. In this thesis I, therefore, collected extensive data on termite taxonomic and functional assemblage structure in a South American site in Peru. The data were used to compare termite abundance and biomass from two comparable sites in Africa (Cameroon) and south east Asia (Malaysia) in order to gain better understanding of the role termites play in ecosystem processes. I found that there was an intercontinental difference in the abundance and biomass of termite feeding-groups mainly due to the dominance of soil-feeding termites in Cameroon and the absence of fungus-growing termites from Peru. The impact of certain lineages on the intercontinental differences suggests that the differences may be due to biogeographical evolution. Moreover, Eggleton et al. (1998) show that larger-bodied soil-feeding termites in Cameroon process more energy per unit area than predicted by their body size. Due to the need for an examination of the allometric relationships in termite assemblages outside Africa and the development of a more sophisticated feeding-group classification I explore the findings in Eggleton et al. (1998) further using population density - body mass relationships in three termite feeding-groups among the three continental sites in Cameroon, Peru and Malaysia. I found that large-bodied soil-feeding termites in Cameroon and large-bodied wood-feeding termites in Peru had higher population densities than expected by their body masses. As the population density - body mass relationship is inverse to that of the energy - body mass relationship the results suggest that the two feeding-groups also use more energy than expected by their body masses. Further, we have a relatively good understanding of the role termites play as ecosystem engineers e.g. in nutrient cycling and distribution, however, compared with our understanding of wood and litter decomposition in tropical forests quantitative data on the impact of termites in soil processes is poorly understood. In this thesis I conducted, to our knowledge, the first in situ soil macrofauna exclusion experiment using translocated soil in Peru to examine the impact of termites on soil C and N loss. I found that termites promote soil C and N loss which may be linked to the increase in microbial activity due to the passage of soil through the termite gut as well as the affect termites have on bioturbation and nutrient distribution. To conclude, in this thesis I present the first intercontinental comparison of abundance and biomass as well as the first in situ soil macrofauna exclusion experiment to date. The link between termite ecology, biogeography and evolution is discussed as well as the contribution of this thesis to the field of termite ecology.

Um kulturelle Werte von Landschaft in Landschaftsplanungen stärker zu berücksichtigen wurden sie in dieser Arbeit als kulturelle Landschaftsfunktionen bestimmt, die sich in ein System aus Landschaftsfunktionen einordnen, wie es Landschaftsplanungen insgesamt zugrunde liegen kann. Neben bereits ausdifferenzierten naturhaushalterischen Landschaftsfunktionen umfasst es damit folgende kulturelle Landschaftsfunktionen: - bedeutungstragende und sinnstiftende Funktion - Handlungsfunktion - ästhetische und stimmungsstiftende Funktion - Kommunikationsfunktion - Wissensfunktion - Kontinuitätsfunktion - Gestaltungs- und Ausdrucksfunktion - Ordnungs- und Orientierungsfunktion Ihnen sind jeweils Teilfunktionen zugeordnet. Die kulturellen Funktionen stehen in einem hierarchischen Verhältnis zueinander. Übergeordnete kulturelle Funktionen sind die bedeutungstragende und sinnstiftende sowie die Handlungsfunktion. Die Funktionen können sich wechselseitig bedingen oder in Konkurrenz zueinander stehen. Nachdem Werte nicht aus der Landschaft, sondern nur aus der Gesellschaft bestimmt werden können, bildete die Untersuchung der gesellschaftlichen Konzepte hinter den zentralen Begriffen „Werte“, „Raum und Landschaft“ sowie „Kultur“ eine Grundlage zu ihrer Bestimmung. Ein Schwerpunkt lag auf der Auswertung sozialwissenschaftlicher Theorien. Dabei wurde auch ein auf Planungstauglichkeit angelegtes Verständnis der zentralen Begriffe dieser Arbeit geschaffen. Gewählt wurde ein utilitaristischer und zweckrationaler Zugang zu Werten, ein anthropologischer Zugang zu Kultur und ein konstitutions- und handlungstheoretischer Zugang zu Raum und Landschaft; Landschaft wird als Spezifikation von Raum verstanden. Die andere Grundlage zur Bestimmung kultureller Werte bildete die Untersuchung von Entwicklungstrends, von sozialempirischen Untersuchungen sowie eine Untersuchung prosaischer Darstellungen. An die Ausprägung der kulturellen Funktionen sowie von Raum und Landschaft insgesamt wurden im Ergebnis der Untersuchungen Anforderungen in Form von Hypothesen formuliert, die den Zugang zu Raum und Landschaft weiter erklären. Sie haben den Charakter von Prinzipien, insofern Präferenzen in hohem Maße gebietsspezifisch sind. In der Planung gängige Wertmaßstäbe und Urteile werden damit zum Teil in Frage stellt, so die Hypothese eines ästhetisierenden Zugangs zu Landschaft. Andere werden spezifischer gefasst, so die Rolle von Elementen für die Konstitution oder die Rolle von Wissen und von Natürlichkeit für das Schönheitserleben einer Landschaft. Einige zentrale Hypothesen, die Anlass für diese Arbeit waren bzw. die aus dem theoretischen Teil der Untersuchung entwickelt wurden, konnten im sozialempirischen Teil nicht bestätigt werden. Dies gilt maßgeblich für die Zukunftsperspektive, die Landschaft enthält, die jedoch im Regelfall nicht gefragt ist. Wertgebend ist landschaftliche Kontinuität, die Geschichten erzählt, indem sie die Vergangenheit aufzeigt und Erinnerungen manifest macht. Nicht vollständig aufrecht erhalten werden konnte die im theoretischen Teil der Arbeit aufgebaute Hypothese, dass Landschaftsplanungen stärker gruppenspezifisch anzulegen sind. Verbleibt hier eine Überprüfung des Milieukonzepts auf landschaftsspezifische Fragestellungen, so zeigt sich andererseits relativ klar, dass Landschaft eher für das gruppenübergreifend Geteilte steht. Sie ist nicht Gegenstand eines Luxusgeschmacks, sondern Gemeingut. Klarer zu unterscheiden sind jedoch die Erwartungshaltungen aufgrund der Perspektive als Einheimischer oder Tourist. Für die Planung bedeutet das eine deutlichere Unterscheidung zwischen der Definition der landschaftlichen Eigenart und eines landschaftlichen Images. Beide können für die Konstruktion eines Leitbildes Maßstäbe setzten, wobei ein eigenartbasiertes Leitbild eher den Ansprüchen einer gemeinwohlorientierten Planung genügt, ein Image eher auch einem Bedürfnis nach Inszenierung nachkommt. Landschaftsplanungen sind darin zu stärken, produktiven Landnutzungen ein Landschaftsnutzungsinteresse gegenüberzustellen, das zumeist nichtproduktiver und immaterieller Art ist. Dieses Landschafts-nutzungsinteresse ist über die kulturellen Landschaftsfunktionen abgebildet. In Landschaftsplanungen sollten sie entsprechend differenziert betrachtet werden, um die unmittelbaren gesellschaftlichen Anforderungen an Landschaft umfänglich aufzubereiten und zur Verhandlung zu stellen. Sie materiellen klar benennbaren Interessen allein als Komplexparameter und übergreifende emotionale Bedeutungszuschreibungen gegenüber zu stellen, stärkt ihre Verhandlungsposition nicht. Gerade auch im Zuge eines zunehmenden Landnutzungsdrucks ist dies notwendig. Zu sondieren, welche Rolle einer jeden der kulturellen Funktionen für die künftige Entwicklung einer Landschaft zukommt, sollte darüber hinaus Bestandteil eines Planungsprozesses werden, insofern gerade auch dienende Funktionen für die Ausjustierung der Richtung der weiteren Entwicklung notwendig sind, die sich ansonsten schnell auf Fortschreibungen der Vergangenheit anhand einer expertenbasierten Vorstellung von der Eigenart einer Landschaft nach romantischem Ideal beschränken kann. Im Gegenzug wären auch die Landnutzungsinteressen einer gesellschaftlichen Aushandlung der Inanspruchnahme des Gemeinguts Landschaft besser zugänglich zu machen, indem sie beispielsweise fachplanerisch ebenso raumspezifisch und umfassend aufbereitet und der abwägenden Gesamtplanung zugänglich gemacht werden. Als Forderung betrifft das vor allen die Landwirtschaft. Einen konzeptionellen Anschluss finden die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit im Konzept der Ökosystemdienstleistungen. Es eröffnet den Zugang zu einer stärkeren Integration ökonomischer und insbesondere sozialempirischer Methoden in Landschaftsplanungen. Zur methodischen Stärkung von Landschafsplanungen, insbesondere für die raumspezifische Integration der gesellschaftlichen Aspekte, die es im Zusammenhang mit kulturellen Werten von Landschaft in Landschaftsplanungen stärker zu berücksichtigen gilt, wird darin in Ergänzung zu nutzerunabhängigen Methoden und explizit über partizipative Methoden hinaus ein großes Potenzial gesehen. Gefragt ist also ein Methodenmix, der sich auch vor dem Hintergrund einer inkonsistenten theoretischen Basis weniger an theoretischer Stringenz orientieren kann. Der interdisziplinäre Anspruch an Landschaftsplanungen steigt damit. Er kann sich im Ergebnis z. B. in einer Verräumlichung sozialer Dimensionen und der beschreibenden Erfassung der expliziten und impliziten Dimension landschaftlicher Werte beispielsweise in Storylines äußern. Einer stringenten Erfassung landschaftlicher Funktionen auch in ihrer kulturellen Dimension und einer methodischen Weiterentwicklung unbenommen bleibt es originäre planerische Herausforderung in jedem Einzelfall, mit dem Nichtfaktischen umzugehen. Eine Leitbildentwicklung unter diesen Vorzeichen kann erheblich von der Anwendung von Szenarien profitieren. Szenarien können auch den gesellschaftlichen Diskurs über die angestrebte Entwicklung unter Anerkennung der Variabilität, die Eigenart als zentraler planerischer Wertmaßstab innewohnt, stärken. In der Konsequenz können diese Ansätze zu einer Demokratisierung einer Landschaftsplanung beitragen, die stärker auf die Handlungs- und Lebensrealität der Menschen ausgerichtet und stärker als Aushandlungsinstanz über Verfügungsrechte verstanden werden sollte.