Student Number : 9906314R - MSc dissertation - School of Pathology - Faculty of Science / Inappropriate use of antimicrobial agents has been shown to select for organisms with resistance mechanisms (eg. efflux pumps), which could lead to the development of antibiotic resistance. The objective of this study was to investigate a possible link between antibiotic resistant gastrointestinal pathogens and reduced susceptibility to anti microbial agents found in commonly used household disinfectants. Tetracycline and ofloxacin resistant and sensitive Salmonella and E.coli species were isolated from fresh poultry and clinical samples. Ethidium bromide accumulation assays were performed to assess the presence of active efflux pumps. Using spectrophotometric accumulation assays, the extrusion of the active components of commercial household agents by the efflux pumps was tested. To determine changes in the efficacy of these products, in-use disinfectant testing was performed. Active efflux pumps and extrusion of the active ingredients was observed in the resistant but not in the sensitive organisms. When the household products were used at the recommended concentrations, a significant reduction of both resistant and sensitive bacteria was observed after the in-use disinfectant testing procedure. However, if the household products were used at concentrations below the recommended concentration, the resistant bacteria were not eliminated as efficiently as the sensitive bacteria.

Recent advances in synthetic biology have enabled the construction of non-native metabolic pathways for production of next-generation biofuels in microbes. One such biofuel is the jet-fuel precursor α-pinene, which can be processed into high-energy pinene dimers. However, accumulation of toxic biofuels in the growth medium limits the possible fuel yield. Overexpression of transporter proteins such as efflux pumps can increase tolerance to biofuels by pumping them out of the cell, thus improving fuel yields. However, too many efflux pumps can compromise the cell as well, creating a trade-off between biofuel toxicity and pump toxicity. In this work we improve the conditions of this trade-off in order to increase pinene tolerance in E. coli. We do so by constructing strains incorporating multiple efflux pumps from a variety of organisms and then testing them for tolerance in growth assay experiments. Previous research has suggested that certain combinations of efflux pumps can confer additional tolerance compared to the individual pumps themselves. However, the functional form of the combination of the tolerance provided by each pump and the toxicity due to their simultaneous activity is unknown. Using differential equations, we developed a growth model incorporating the trade-offs between toxicity of α-pinene and efflux pump activity to describe the dynamics of bacterial growth under these conditions. By analyzing biofuel toxicity and the effects of each efflux pump independently through a series of experiments and mathematical models, we propose a functional form for their combined effect on growth rate. We model the mean exponential growth rate as a function of pump induction and biofuel concentration and compare these results to experimental data. We also apply this technique to modeling toxicity of ionic liquids, a class of corrosive salts that has emerged as and effective chemical for pretreatment of biofuel production feedstock. We compare a model for a variety of ionic liquid responsive efflux pump controllers to that of an IPTG inducible controller and show agreement with experimental data, supporting the model's utility to test control schemes before conducting experiments. The overall goal of this project is to use modeling to guide design of tolerance mechanisms to improve overall biofuel yield.

Burkholderia pseudomallei et Burkholderia mallei sont respectivement les agents biologiques responsables de la mélioïdose et de la morve. Pour déterminer si les échecs thérapeutiques étaient dus à l'émergence d'une résistance acquise durant le traitement antibiotique, nous avons sélectionné des souches de Burkholderia thailandensis, modèle d'étude, B. pseudomallei et B. mallei, avec différents antibiotiques : le chloramphénicol, la doxycycline et le triméthoprime-sulfaméthoxazole. Les Burkholderia ont montré qu'elles étaient capables de développer une multirésistance in vitro en réponse à chaque antibiotique utilisé dans le traitement oral de la mélioïdose ou de la morve. Pour comprendre les mécanismes de résistance impliqués, nous avons étudié les aspects moléculaires et génétiques de la résistance chez B. thailandensis par des méthodes protéomiques et transcriptomiques. Nous avons développé une méthode pour quantifier l'expression des gènes de pompes d'efflux par RT-PCR quantitative après normalisation sur plusieurs gènes de référence. Ces méthodes nous ont permis d'identifier la surproduction séquentielle de trois pompes d'efflux de type RND : BpeAB-OprB, AmrAB-OprA et BpeEF-OprC, toutes induites par le chloramphénicol ou la doxycycline chez les souches multirésistantes. L'étude de mutants déficients en pompe d'efflux nous a permis de mieux appréhender les relations étroites entre ces trois pompes et a confirmé que l'efflux actif était le principal mécanisme impliqué cette résistance induite. / Burkholderia pseudomallei and Burkholderia mallei are respectively the causative agents of melioidosis and glanders. To determine whether treatment failures were due to the emergence of acquired resistance during antibiotic treatment, we selected strains of B. pseudomallei, B. mallei, and Burkholderia thailandensis, used as a study model of these two pathogenic bacteria, with structurally unrelated antibiotics: chloramphenicol, doxycycline and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. We showed that Burkholderia were able to develop multidrug resistance in vitro in response to each of theses antibiotics used in the oral treatment of melioidosis and glanders. To understand the resistance mechanisms involved, we studied the molecular and genetic aspects of resistance in B. thailandensis by proteomic and transcriptomic methods. We have developed a method to quantify efflux pumps gene expression by quantitative RT-PCR after normalization with several reference genes. These methods allowed us to identify sequential overproduction of three RND efflux pumps: BpeAB-OprB, AmrAB-OprA and BpeEF-OprC, all induced by chloramphenicol or doxycycline in multiresistant strains. The study of mutants respectively defective in one of these efflux pumps has allowed us to better understand the close relationship between these three pumps and confirmed that active efflux acted as a major mechanism involved in the induced resistance.

In this dissertation, I employed a combination of in vitro and in silico techniques to characterize two bacterial membrane proteins: the MtrE efflux conduit from Neisseria gonorrhoeae and the AmtB ammonia transporter from Escherichia coli. MtrE is an efflux conduit located in the outer membrane of N. gonorrhoeae. It can form a protein complex with MtrC (a periplasmic adapter) and MtrD (an inner membrane active transporter). This tripartite machinery actively extrudes a diverse set of compounds from the periplasm to the exterior of the bacteria. The MtrCDE complex and homologous tripartite efflux pumps are amongst the major contributors to the emergence of super-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. The efforts to abolish the activity of these protein complexes have so far concentrated on the inhibition of the active pump, but had little clinical success to date. I carried out a combination of Planar Lipid Bilayer electrophysiology experiments, Molecular Dynamics simulations, and protein homology modeling on the MtrE and the MtrC proteins. I characterized the MtrE conduit as being slightly cation selective, as opposed to other homologous proteins which exhibit a much stronger selectivity. Additionally, I demonstrated that the opening of MtrE is modulated by the binding of the adapter protein MtrC. These results have a critical importance because they imply that the tripartite pump activity can be diminished not only by the MtrD inhibition, but by targeting the interface between MtrC and MtrE. The AmtB ammonia transporter is a protein embedded in the inner membrane of E. coli in situations of growth-limiting low levels of ammonia. The transport has been shown to be electrogenic in similar orthologous proteins, but the exact mechanism has so far remained elusive. The only inner pathway that has been identified in AmtB is lined by hydrophobic amino acids and for this reason it has been proposed to carry neutral ammonia. My Molecular Dynamics simulations reveal the opening of a water wire separated from the well known hydrophobic pore. This finding suggests a transport mechanism in which the neutral ammonia and the proton travel along different conduits. My simulations on several AmtB mutants gave additional important insights into the protein function. Notably my results explain the structural determinants of the switching of substrate from NH4+ to K+ observed for the H168D/H318E double mutant. Lastly, I identified several 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoglycerol (POPG) binding sites on AmtB, which could possibly contribute to modulating the transport. Importantly, these in silico experiments were guided and confirmed by Solid Supported Membrane-electrophysiology measurements carried out in collaboration with the Javelle group. The data presented in this Thesis highlights the strength of a coordinated approach, in which experimental and computational findings direct, and integrate with each other.

Serratia marcescens, a member of Enterobacteriaceae family, is a causative agent of nosocomial and opportunistic infections. Numerous reports show that the multidrug resistance among S. marcescens is growing. This organism has high-level intrinsic resistance to a variety of antimicrobial agents, which makes the treatment of infections caused by this bacterium very difficult. The major mechanism for antibiotic resistance, especially to fluoroquinolones, in Gram-negative organisms is the active efflux of the antibiotic molecule mediated by efflux pumps belonging to the Resistance-Nodulation-Cell Division (RND) family. It was previously shown that the SdeAB and SdeXY multidrug efflux pumps are important for conferring the intrinsic drug resistance in S.marcescens. In Escherichia coli, the up-regulation of transcriptional activators, such as MarA, SoxS and Rob, affect transcription of acrAB, tolC and micF. Over-expression of Rob results in increased expression of the E. coli AcrAB-TolC efflux pump and decreases outer membrane permeability through up-regulation of micF, resulting in multidrug, organic solvent and heavy metal resistance. In the present study, we report the identification of a rob gene in S. marcescens which has a 70% identity at the DNA level and 71% identity at the amino acid level to that of E. coli. Moreover, the S. marcescens rob demonstrated similar properties to the E. coli rob including having an effect on expression of outer membrane protein F (OmpF) and over-expression of SdeAB and SdeXY, conferring antibiotic resistance to divergent antibacterial agents and tolerance to organic solvents. We performed rob promoter evaluations using transcriptional fusions to the Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) in the vector pGlow-TOPO and constructed a rob knock-out using the TargeTron Gene Knockout System. Promoter activity assessment, using the pGlow-TOPO reporter plasmid, showed that rob had higher promoter activity at 37°C than 30°C. In the presence of 2,2’-dipyridyl, rob promoter activity was observed to be slightly increased in the early and mid-log phase by 1.4 and 1.1 fold, respectively. We also showed that sodium decanoate and sodium salicylate can reduce the transcription of rob at 30°C and 37°C. This reduction was observed more potently when rob was exposed to sodium decanoate at 30°C. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for various antibiotics of the S. marcescens rob knock-out demonstrated a decrease in susceptibility to nalidixic acid, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ofloxacin. Over-expression of rob resulted in an increased resistance by 4, 2, and 2-fold to nalidixic acid, tetracycline and chloramphenicol, respectively. In addition, rob over-production displayed 8, 4, and 4-fold increase in resistance to ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, respectively. To discover the role of rob in the efflux mechanism, we performed ethidium bromide accumulation assays on over-expressing and knock-out strains. Organic solvent tolerance assays were carried out using n-hexane to determine if rob is involved in expression of efflux pumps. We found the rob null mutant to be sensitive to n-hexane while the over-expression of rob resulted in resistance to n-hexane. RT-PCR of the rob knock-out strain showed a decrease in expression of micF, ompC, sdeXY, sdeAB and tolC, respectively, and an increase in the expression of ompF. To conclude, we identified a rob homolog in S. marcescens which contributes to resistance to multiple antibiotics and tolerance to organic solvent.

Serratia marcescens, a member of Enterobacteriaceae family, is a causative agent of nosocomial and opportunistic infections. Numerous reports show that the multidrug resistance among S. marcescens is growing. This organism has high-level intrinsic resistance to a variety of antimicrobial agents, which makes the treatment of infections caused by this bacterium very difficult. The major mechanism for antibiotic resistance, especially to fluoroquinolones, in Gram-negative organisms is the active efflux of the antibiotic molecule mediated by efflux pumps belonging to the Resistance-Nodulation-Cell Division (RND) family. It was previously shown that the SdeAB and SdeXY multidrug efflux pumps are important for conferring the intrinsic drug resistance in S.marcescens. In Escherichia coli, the up-regulation of transcriptional activators, such as MarA, SoxS and Rob, affect transcription of acrAB, tolC and micF. Over-expression of Rob results in increased expression of the E. coli AcrAB-TolC efflux pump and decreases outer membrane permeability through up-regulation of micF, resulting in multidrug, organic solvent and heavy metal resistance. In the present study, we report the identification of a rob gene in S. marcescens which has a 70% identity at the DNA level and 71% identity at the amino acid level to that of E. coli. Moreover, the S. marcescens rob demonstrated similar properties to the E. coli rob including having an effect on expression of outer membrane protein F (OmpF) and over-expression of SdeAB and SdeXY, conferring antibiotic resistance to divergent antibacterial agents and tolerance to organic solvents. We performed rob promoter evaluations using transcriptional fusions to the Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) in the vector pGlow-TOPO and constructed a rob knock-out using the TargeTron Gene Knockout System. Promoter activity assessment, using the pGlow-TOPO reporter plasmid, showed that rob had higher promoter activity at 37°C than 30°C. In the presence of 2,2’-dipyridyl, rob promoter activity was observed to be slightly increased in the early and mid-log phase by 1.4 and 1.1 fold, respectively. We also showed that sodium decanoate and sodium salicylate can reduce the transcription of rob at 30°C and 37°C. This reduction was observed more potently when rob was exposed to sodium decanoate at 30°C. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for various antibiotics of the S. marcescens rob knock-out demonstrated a decrease in susceptibility to nalidixic acid, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ofloxacin. Over-expression of rob resulted in an increased resistance by 4, 2, and 2-fold to nalidixic acid, tetracycline and chloramphenicol, respectively. In addition, rob over-production displayed 8, 4, and 4-fold increase in resistance to ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, respectively. To discover the role of rob in the efflux mechanism, we performed ethidium bromide accumulation assays on over-expressing and knock-out strains. Organic solvent tolerance assays were carried out using n-hexane to determine if rob is involved in expression of efflux pumps. We found the rob null mutant to be sensitive to n-hexane while the over-expression of rob resulted in resistance to n-hexane. RT-PCR of the rob knock-out strain showed a decrease in expression of micF, ompC, sdeXY, sdeAB and tolC, respectively, and an increase in the expression of ompF. To conclude, we identified a rob homolog in S. marcescens which contributes to resistance to multiple antibiotics and tolerance to organic solvent.

The trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole combination, co-trimoxazole, plays a vital role in the treatment of Burkholderia pseudomallei infections. Previous studies demonstrated that the B. pseudomallei BpeEF-OprC efflux pump confers widespread trimethoprim resistance in clinical and environmental isolates, but this is not accompanied by significant resistance to co-trimoxazole. Using the excluded select-agent strain B. pseudomallei Bp82, we now show that in vitro acquired trimethoprim versus cotrimoxazole resistance is mainly mediated by constitutive BpeEF-OprC expression due to bpeT mutations or by BpeEF-OprC overexpression due to bpeS mutations. Mutations in bpeT affect the carboxy-terminal effector-binding domain of the BpeT LysR-type activator protein. Trimethoprim resistance can also be mediated by dihydrofolate reductase (FolA) target mutations, but this occurs rarely unless BpeEF-OprC is absent. BpeS is a transcriptional regulator that is 62% identical to BpeT. Mutations affecting the BpeS DNA-binding or carboxy-terminal effector-binding domains result in constitutive BpeEF-OprC overexpression, leading to trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole efflux and thus to cotrimoxazole resistance. The majority of laboratory-selected co-trimoxazole-resistant mutants often also contain mutations in folM, encoding a pterin reductase. Genetic analyses of these mutants established that both bpeS mutations and folM mutations contribute to co-trimoxazole resistance, although the exact role of folM remains to be determined. Mutations affecting bpeT, bpeS, and folM are common in co-trimoxazole-resistant clinical isolates, indicating that mutations affecting these genes are clinically significant. Cotrimoxazole resistance in B. pseudomallei is a complex phenomenon, which may explain why resistance to this drug is rare in this bacterium. IMPORTANCE Burkholderia pseudomallei causes melioidosis, a tropical disease that is difficult to treat. The bacterium's resistance to antibiotics limits therapeutic options. The paucity of orally available drugs further complicates therapy. The oral drug of choice is co-trimoxazole, a combination of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole. These antibiotics target two distinct enzymes, FolA (dihydrofolate reductase) and FolP (dihydropteroate synthase), in the bacterial tetrahydrofolate biosynthetic pathway. Although co-trimoxazole resistance is minimized due to two-target inhibition, bacterial resistance due to folA and folP mutations does occur. Co-trimoxazole resistance in B. pseudomallei is rare and has not yet been studied. Co-trimoxazole resistance in this bacterium employs a novel strategy involving differential regulation of BpeEF-OprC efflux pump expression that determines the drug resistance profile. Contributing are mutations affecting folA, but not folP, and folM, a folate pathway-associated gene whose function is not yet well understood and which has not been previously implicated in folate inhibitor resistance in clinical isolates.

No description available.

L’objectif de cette thèse a été d’élaborer une stratégie de détoxification la quantité d'un composé intracellulaire en permettant sa sortie hors de la cellule via l'utilisation d'un système d’efflux.L’hôte choisi pour cette étude est un nouvel organisme modèle, Deinococcus geothermalis. Nous avons utilisé les pompes d'efflux comme outils biologique pour permettre la sortie d'un composé devenu toxique en intracellulaire. Pour ce faire, nous avons dans un premier temps inséré par recombinaison homologue une sélection de gènes codant pour des pompes d’efflux hétérologues dans le chromosome de D. geothermalis. Puis la seconde étape a été de déterminé la susceptibilité des recombinants obtenus vis à vis de composés à forte valeur ajoutée. Un certain nombre de recombinants présentant une résistance plus élevée que la souche sauvage à plusieurs composés ont alors été sélectionnés. L'étape suivante a été de vérifier que le gain de résistance observé était effectivement dû à l’insertion dans l’enveloppe bactérienne d’une pompe d’efflux fonctionnelle. Pour ce faire, des tests d’efflux employant un marqueur fluorescent, le composé Hoechst 33342 ou avec un antibiotique fluorescent ont été réalisés. Nous avons réussi à obtenir la preuve de concept qu' un gène codant pour une pompe d'efflux hétérologue pouvait conduire à l'expression d'une protéine fonctionnelle chez D. geothermalis et cette protéine membranaire permettait la diminution la quantité intracellulaire d'un composé donné. / The objective of this thesis was to develop a strategy for detoxifying the amount of an intracellular compound by allowing its exit from the cell through the use of an efflux system.The host chosen for this study is a new model organism, Deinococcus geothermalis. We used efflux pumps as biological tools to allow the release of a compound that became toxic intracellularly. To do this, we first inserted by homologous recombination a selection of genes encoding heterologous efflux pumps into the D. geothermalis chromosome. Then the second step was to determine the susceptibility of the recombinants obtained to high value-added compounds. A number of recombinants with higher resistance than the wild multi-compound strain were then selected. The next step was to verify that the observed resistance gain was indeed due to the insertion of a functional efflux pump into the bacterial shell. To do this, efflux tests using a fluorescent marker, Hoechst compound 33342 or with a fluorescent antibiotic were performed. We were able to obtain proof of concept that a gene encoding a heterologous efflux pump could lead to the expression of a functional protein in D. geothermalis and that this membrane protein allowed the intracellular amount of a given compound to be decreased.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The goal of this study was to determine the occurrence of two resistance mechanisms described in micro-organisms, but not described in R. equi isolates from horses and environment samples. The first mechanism studied it was the biofilm formation in R. equi isolates from clinical (n=41) and fecal (n=72) equine samples. In order to verify the biofilm formation it was employed the biofilm-culturing assay (with and without glucose supplementation) and the epifluorescence microscopy method. Biofilm-producers R. equi isolates (n=8) were selected and analyzed by two in vitro susceptibility tests with three antimicrobial agents belonging to macrolides group and commonly used in equine rhodococcosis treatment. The biofilm formation was observed in 80.5% of fecal and 63.4% of clinical isolates of R. equi. The methods used in this study were useful to verify the biofilm formation by R. equi isolates. However, the glucose supplementation was an important factor for biofilm formation in fecal samples. Antimicrobial resistance was demonstrated in biofilm antimicrobial susceptibility test. The second mechanism studied included the efflux system in R. equi isolates from clinical (n=30), fecal (n=30) and soil (n=30) sources. The presence of req_39680 gene, encoding a putative efflux system, was determined by PCR. Phenotypic expression of efflux systems was determined in agar containing ethidium bromide. The req_39680 gene was detected in 60% of the isolates and the phenotypic expression in 20%. In clinical isolates was observed high correlation between the presence of this gene and the expression of efflux systems. Both mechanisms studied were demonstrated in R. equi and may be contributing to increase the antimicrobial resistance, as well as to be associated to the survival of R. equi in the environment and host. / O objetivo do presente estudo foi determinar a ocorrência de dois mecanismos de resistência descritos em micro-organismos, porém, ainda não verificados em isolados de R. equi provenientes de amostras de equinos e de solo. O primeiro mecanismo estudado foi a formação de biofilmes em isolados de R. equi de amostras clínicas (n=41) e fecais (n=72) de equinos. Para verificação da formação de biofilmes empregaram-se as técnicas de formação de biofilme em cultura (com e sem a suplementação de glicose) e a microscopia de epifluorescência. Oito isolados formadores de biofilme foram selecionados e submetidos a testes de susceptibilidade frente a três antimicrobianos da classe dos macrolídeos, comumente utilizados no tratamento da rodococose equina. A formação de biofilmes foi observada em 80,5% dos isolados fecais e em 63,4% dos clínicos. Os métodos utilizados neste estudo foram adequados para verificar a formação de biofilmes nos isolados de R. equi. No entanto, foi constatado que a glicose é um substrato importante para formação de biofilme em isolados de origem fecal. Nos testes de susceptibilidade observou-se resistência aos antimicrobianos testados apenas quando os isolados de R. equi foram desafiados na forma de biofilme. O segundo mecanismo explorado envolveu a pesquisa de sistema de efluxo em isolados de R. equi de origem clínica (n=30) fecal (n=30) e de solo (n=30). Neste estudo buscou-se identificar a presença de um gene denominado req_39680, o qual foi descrito como codificador de um possível sistema de efluxo, Por fim, avaliou-se a expressão fenotípica de mecanismo de efluxo nos isolados analisados. A presença do gene req_39680, foi determinada por meio da técnica de reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) e a análise da expressão fenotípica de mecanismo de efluxo foi visualizada em ágar contendo brometo de etídeo. Foi evidenciada a presença do gene req_39680 em 60% dos isolados e a expressão fenotípica em 20%. Nos isolados de origem clínica, um alto índice de correlação entre a presença do gene estudado e a expressão de mecanismo de efluxo foi observada. Ambos os mecanismos estudados estão presentes em R. equi e podem estar contribuindo para a crescente resistência aos antimicrobianos, bem como, estar relacionados à sobrevivência de R. equi tanto no ambiente quanto no hospedeiro.