We study how individuals' formation of inflation expectations are affected by the stringent containment and economic support measures put in place during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Using the New York Fed Survey of Consumer Expectations (SCE) and the Oxford COVID‐19 Government Response Tracker (OxCGRT), we find that policies aimed at containing the pandemic lead to an increase in individuals' inflation expectations and inflation uncertainty. We also find some heterogeneity in the impact across different demographic groups.

Oil palm dominates global oil production, trade, and consumption. Nigeria is one of the leading palm oil producers and consumers. A significant challenge of the palm oil industry is to reduce the environmental impacts (e.g. pollution and carbon footprint) and integrate a circular economy in operation. This study aims to comparatively quantify the environmental impacts of technologies used by different mills. We applied a life cycle assessment in the case of Nigeria. The study covers the reception and processing of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) to end-product palm oil. The inputs include generated empty fruit bunch (EFB), mesocarp fibre, palm kernel shell, palm oil mill effluent, diesel, water and all outputs to the environment for a functional unit of 1-tonne FFB. The results showed that large-scale mills perform worse (468 kg CO₂-eq per t FFB) than the semi-mechanised and smallholder mills in effects on climate change but better in the other impact categories, including human toxicity, ecotoxicity, and fine particulate matter formation. In large-scale mills, the climate change impacts decrease by 75% when the raw palm oil mill effluent (POME) is used in composting EFB. Similarly, climate change impacts reduce by 44% when biogas from POME substitutes diesel in the semi-mechanised and smallholder mills. We conclude that regulatory measures are needed to ensure improved management practices in the production processes. Particular attention should be paid to the generation and reuse of biomass and POME. This study provides a handy reference to assist the sustainable energy transition in Nigeria’s and other parts of sub-Saharan Africa’s oil palm industry to mitigate climate change and form a cleaner bioeconomy.

The future consequences of climate change are highly uncertain and estimates of economic damages differ widely. Governments try to cope with these risks by investing in mitigation and adaptation measures. In contrast to most of the existing literature, we explicitly model the decision of risk averse governments on mitigation and adaptation policies. We also consider the interaction of the two strategies in presence of uncertainty. Mitigation efforts of a single country trigger crowding out as other countries will reduce their mitigation efforts. This may even lead to lower mitigation on the global scale. In contrast, a unilateral commitment to large adaptation efforts benefits the single country and can reduce the global risk from climate change at the expense of other countries.

Künstliche Terrassen sind künstlich konstruierte Trockenmauern, die Hänge in Ebenen unterteilen. Petra im Süden Jordaniens gehört zu einer trockenen Klimazone, die sich durch unwegsames Gelände und eine mit Terrassen durchsetzte Landschaft auszeichnet. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse wurden vom Autor im Rahmen einer multidisziplinären Studie gesammelt, die aus Vermessungen, Erkundungsgrabungen, geophysikalischen Prospektionen, Untersuchungen der Bodentextur sowie chemischen Analysen, optisch stimulierender Lumineszenzdatierung (OSL), Radiokohlenstoffdatierung (14C), Phytolithanalysen und geografischen Analysen zur Untersuchung der Terrassen in einem Gebiet von etwa 391 km2 bestand. Die vorliegende Studie zeigt, dass die künstlichen Terrassen in Trockengebieten für eine Vielzahl von Funktionen konzipiert und genutzt wurden. Die Terrassen dienten somit der Rückhaltung, Sammlung und Verteilung von Boden und Wasser und verhinderten, dass Wasser unkontrolliert abfließt und Erde weggespült wird. Das trockene Klima, das raue Gelände und die für dieses Gebiet charakteristischen Überschwemmungen machten diese Eingriffe in die Natur notwendig. Neben diesen beiden Hauptaufgaben konnten die Terrassen der Nabatäer noch andere Funktionen erfüllen. Neben der landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung der Terrassen nutzten die Nabatäer sie auch zum Schutz ihrer Infrastruktur wie Straßen und hydrologische Einrichtungen. Ein Aspekt, der in der Forschung noch nicht diskutiert wurde. All dies deutet darauf hin, dass die Nabatäer die Gegend sehr gut kannten und gezielt den Bau einer bestimmten Art von Terrasse nutzten. Basierend auf verschiedenen Datierungstechniken begann der Bau der Terrassen in Petra um 350-320 v. Chr. Drei zeitliche Höhepunkte in der Bauausweitung lassen sich unterscheiden: um das 1. Jahrhundert n. Chr., um das 6. bis 7. Jahrhundert n. Chr. und um das 12. Jahrhundert n. Chr. / Man-made terraces are often-overlooked feature in the landscapes of southern Jordan, especially around Petra. These features are artificial constructions dry walls that create flat surfaces on slopes (Spencer, J. and Hale, G. 1961: 3; Treacy, J. and Denevan, W. 1994: 93; Kvapil, L. 2013: 6612). These terraces are usually attributed to have agricultural functions, which is only partially true. This study shows that terraces constructed in arid areas have been designed and used for a wide set of functions that go beyond their agrarian aspects. Petra, located in the south of Jordan, falls within an arid climatic zone, is of rough terrain, and has a landscape dotted with terraces. A multidisciplinary study was conducted by the author which included survey, sounding excavations, geophysical prospecting, soil texture and chemical analysis, Optical Stimulating Luminescence (OSL), radiocarbon dating (14C), phytolith analysis and spatial analysis for studying the terraces. Two major functions were assigned to the constructed terraces: hydrological (water) and pedogenic (soil). Applied to prevent, retain, collect and distribute soil and water. Nabataeans managed to apply terraces to a wide range of fields such as: agriculture, infrastructure such as roads and hydrological installations, an aspect never discussed before. The study concluded, based on OSL, pottery sherds and 14C dates, terrace construction in Petra started around 350-320 B.C.E. at the upper catchment areas, probably for flood water mitigation. Three peaks in the construction expansion can be grouped: around the 1st century A.D, around 6th -7th century and around 12th century, which correspond to more humid climatic conditions and stability in the political situation.