Increasing amounts of solar power connected to the low-voltage network will adversely affect the performance of the network. The two impacts that will most often set the limit are overvoltage with the customers and overloading the distribution transformer. In this work, alternative methods have been studied for determining when a transformer is overloaded, to allow more solar power to be connected to the low-voltage network, i.e., increasing the hosting capacity for solar power.A limit-based method on the highest temperature inside the transformer (the hotspot temperature) and a method based on the loss-of-life of the transformer insulation due to hotspot temperatures above the design temperature are those alternative methods in this study. These methods are known as "dynamic transformer rating", a technology proposed in the literature but with very little practical experience in distribution networks.Two models were developed and implemented in MATLAB: a thermal model of the transformer calculating the hotspot temperature for a given time series of loading and ambient temperature; and a model for the loss-of-life of the winding insulation for given time series of the hotspot temperature. These models have been applied to existing distribution networks: measured consumption patterns with high time resolution (10-minute time step) for nine different distribution transformers for 1.5 years (network operator); measured ambient temperature (SMHI); and solar-power production calculated from satellite measurements (Renewables Ninja).For these nine distribution transformers, the time series of the hotspot temperature and the loss-of-life over the 1.5 years have been calculated for different values of the solar power installed capacity on the low-voltage side of the distribution transformer. The resulting time series are used to estimate the hosting capacity for solar power of a 200 kVA transformer. Using the existing design methods, the hosting capacity is 200 kW. Once that value is reached, the further connection of solar power should be stopped until a larger transformer is available. According to IEC design methods, the hosting capacity is about 270 kW using a limit to the hotspot temperature. This value somewhat depends on the loading patterns of the transformer before the connection of solar power. Once that value is reached, the further connection should again be stopped. Even for installed capacity exceeding 270 kW, the loss of life of the transformer insulation is still small and acceptable. This allows for further connection of PV without the immediate need to replace the transformer. Even values up to 350 or 400 kW may be acceptable, but a limit based on loss-of-life will require a detailed risk analysis as the pre-solar loading of the transformer is shown to play an important role.This work has shown that dynamic transformer rating allows more solar power to be connected to a distribution network than using classical rating methods without unacceptable risk for transformer loss-of-life.

Oliver Tambo Institute of Governance and Policy Studies. / MPM

MRDV / Institute for Rural Development / In the year 2002, the Zimbabwean government adopted a Rural Electrification Programme (REP) as a developmental strategy designed to improve villagers’ lives. Despite the government’s noble initiative to improve rural areas’ access to electricity, not much is known about the REP’s socio-economic benefits to grassroots communities in the country. Thus, a study was carried out to determine the REP’s socio-economic benefits accruing to villagers in Insiza South District located in Matabeleland South Province of Zimbabwe. Appreciative inquiry was undertaken following a mixed method approach. Data were collected through two sequentially integrated phases. Multistage sampling was applied to select respondents from 15 villages within three administrative wards 5, 7 and 12 of Insiza South District. Out of the 110 respondents who participated in the study, the eight key informants who participated in the first phase were drawn from the institutions that coordinated the REP. One hundred and two residents participated in phase two of data collection carried out through application of focus group discussions (FGDs). Thematic content analysis was used to analyse qualitative data collected in phase 1 of the study. Quantitative data was analysed using the International Business Machines, Statistical Product and Service Solution (IBM, SPSS) version 24 for Windows. More than 68 % of the respondents perceived basic uses (lighting, cooking, and for educational purposes) of electricity as the benefits accruing from the REP. Sixty six percent of respondents viewed modern uses (heating, cooling and air conditioning) of electricity as the benefits accruing from the programme. A much smaller proportion (31 %) of villagers singled out the benefits of electrification to be productive uses such as boiler making, manufacturing and mechanised farming. There were highly significant differences in perception among residents of the wards with respect to basic (P < 0.001) and modern (P < 0.01) uses. However, there were no differences in perception among male and female members of the three wards (P < 0.05). The collective community benefits included improved access to information, enhanced retention and attraction of teachers in rural areas, introduction of computer studies in schools and initiation of entrepreneurial projects such as welding and milling. Residents also benefitted indirectly from the REP through local electrified service centres. It was revealed that almost 91 % the local villagers were still using firewood while about 59 % of the villagers who could afford it had access to solar power. The study highlighted the need for a platform to deliberate on challenges relating to RE and its contribution to economy. The findings are crucial for rural development, policy reviews and academic research.

In power distribution system planning, it is essential to understand the impacts that electric vehicles (EVs), and the non-linear, time-variant loading profiles associated with their charging units, may have on power distribution networks. This research presents a design methodology for the creation of both analytical and behavioral models for EV charging units within a VHDL-AMS simulation environment. Voltage and current data collected from Electric Avenue, located on the Portland State University campus, were used to create harmonic profiles of the EV charging units at the site. From these profiles, generalized models for both single-phase (Level 2) and three-phase (Level 3) EV chargers were created. Further, these models were validated within a larger system context utilizing the IEEE 13-bus distribution test feeder system. Results from the model's validation are presented for various charger and power system configurations. Finally, an online tool that was created for use by distribution system designers is presented. This tool can aid designers in assessing the impacts that EV chargers have on electrical assets, and assist with the appropriate selection of transformers, conductor ampacities, and protection equipment & settings.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / This thesis proposes two new topologies for Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS), and a grid-tie microinverter. The first topic will discuss an on-line transformerless UPS system based on the integrated power electronics converters that is able to control the input power factor, charge the battery, and guarantee backup operation of the system. The main advantages of the proposed UPS are active power factor correction (PFC) without the need of a complex control scheme, and integrated functions of the battery charger circuit and PFC with only three power switches. Operation modes of the system and the PWM strategy is presented in detail. The second topic discussed is of a proposed circuitry for a single-phase back-to-back converter for UPS applications. The main advantages of this topology is higher number of levels at the rectifier side, less number of power switches, and no need for a boost inductor at the input side of the converter. The last topic discussed is of a proposed patent pending microinverter. This topic was a project funded by the National Science Foundation, and its aim was to help commercialize the research. This project proposes a solution for a solar inverter called Delta Microinverter that allows easier and faster installation as well as power conversion with higher efficiency. Delta Microinverters innovation is found in its patent-pending shape and in its patent-pending circuitry, i.e., electronics mounted inside of the Delta Microinverter. The Delta Microinverters shape has a housing configured for rapid mounting using a single fastener and its power electronics configuration offers an optimized relationship between the number of levels and number of power switches.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / With the rapid growth of technology, scientists are trying to find ways to make the world a more efficient and eco-friendly place. The research and development of electric vehicles suddenly boomed since natural resource are becoming very scarce. The significance of an electric vehicle goes beyond using free energy, it is environ- mental friendly. The objective of this thesis is to understand what Vehicle to Grid Communication (V2G) for an electric vehicle is, and to implement a model of this highly efficient system into a Hybrid Petri Net. This thesis proposes a Hybrid Petri net modeling of Vehicle to Grid (V2G) Communication topology. Initially, discrete, continuous, and hybrid Petri net's are defined, familiarized, and exemplified. Secondly, the Vehicle and Grid side of the V2G communication system is introduced in detail. The modeling of individual Petri nets, as well as their combination is discussed thoroughly. Thirdly, in order to prove these systems, simulation and programming is used to validate the theoretical studies. A Matlab embedded simulation program known as SimHPN is used to simulate specific scenario's in the system, which uses Depth-first Search (DFS) Algorithm. In addition to SimHPN simulation program, Matlab program is made to output four levels of the reachability tree as well as specifying duplicate and terminate nodes. This code incorporates a technique known as Breadth-first Search (BFS) Algorithm.

A conexão de geradores distribuídos em sistemas de distribuição deve ser cuidadosamente avaliada para que os mesmos auxiliem efetivamente na melhoria do desempenho das redes elétricas, buscando reduzir ou eliminar eventuais situações que causem a degradação da qualidade da energia elétrica fornecida aos consumidores, entre outros aspectos. Neste contexto, existem vários trabalhos que analisam a influência da conexão de geradores distribuídos no perfil de tensão da rede elétrica, frequência, desequilíbrio de fases e distorção harmônica. No entanto, há poucos trabalhos analisando os efeitos da desconexão de geradores distribuídos na qualidade da energia fornecida aos consumidores. Uma vez operando em paralelo com a rede de distribuição, esses geradores influenciam o perfil de tensão e o comportamento dos dispositivos reguladores de tensão. Como consequência, sua desconexão pode provocar variações de tensão intensas causando danos ou mau funcionamento às cargas. A desconexão pode ser repentina ou devido à atuação da proteção anti-ilhamento, seguida dos procedimentos de religamento automático do alimentador, se houver. Visando estudar este problema, o qual tende a se tornar uma nova preocupação das concessionárias de energia elétrica, e no intuito de minimizar e/ou eliminar os possíveis efeitos negativos dessas variações de tensão, esta pesquisa propõe o desenvolvimento de um método de controle dos taps dos reguladores de tensão. Neste método, o controle dos taps foi modelado como um problema de otimização, minimizando as violações de tensão mencionadas anteriormente e também a quantidade de operações dos reguladores de tensão ao longo de um dia típico. A otimização foi solucionada com um Algoritmo Genético e os resultados obtidos indicaram que é possível minimizar as variações de tensão usando a curva de carga do sistema para planejar a operação dos reguladores de tensão. / The connection of distributed generators in an electric power system should be evaluated carefully to ensure that they effectively assist in improving the performance of electrical networks, reducing or eliminating any situations that cause degradation of the power quality of the consumers, and other issues. In this context, there are several studies that analyze the influence of generators connected to distribution systems and how they affect the frequency, cause variations in voltage magnitude, voltage unbalance and harmonic distortion. However, there are a few studies analyzing the effects that the disconnection of distributed generators induces to the power quality of consumers. Once operating in parallel with the distribution network, these generators have an effect on voltage variations and voltage regulator devices. As a result, disconnection can cause severe voltage variations causing damage or malfunction to the loads. The disconnection may be sudden or due to the action of anti-islanding protection, followed by the procedure to reconnect the substation, if it is possible. In order to study this problem, which tends to become a new power quality concern for electric utilities, and in order to minimize and / or eliminate the possible side effects of the voltage variations, this research proposes the development of a control method of voltage regulators\' taps. In this method, the control of taps was modeled as an optimization problem which aimed to minimize these voltage variations aforementioned and also the amount of voltage regulator operations over a typical day. The optimization was solved by a Genetic Algorithm and the results obtained demonstrate that it is possible to minimize the voltage variation by using the system load curve to plan the operation of voltage regulators.

Atualmente, as concessionárias de energia enfrentam vários desafios na tentativa de fornecer energia com qualidade e confiabilidade, por exemplo, redes de distribuição com pouco monitoramento e controle, envelhecimento dos ativos, atender a crescente demanda dos consumidores e satisfazer padrões de qualidade, entre outros. No Brasil, para atingir os índices de qualidade no fornecimento de energia estabelecidos pela Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica (ANEEL), tem-se como alternativa aumentar a inteligência da rede com sistemas de tecnologia de informação (TI), além de utilizar Dispositivos Eletrônicos Inteligentes (IEDs), medidores inteligentes e sensores. Adicionalmente é necessário o emprego de uma infraestrutura de comunicação que forneça uma visibilidade abrangente das condições de carga e do estado do sistema de distribuição, permitindo fazer uso de técnicas de otimização e tomada de decisão para aumento da inteligência. O controle da tensão e o gerenciamento da potência reativa (Volt/VAr) são práticas de automação que podem ser empregadas nos sistemas de distribuição. Estas práticas ajudam a aumentar o benefício, a confiabilidade e a eficiência no fornecimento da qualidade do produto, minimizando os custos de operação e manutenção nas concessionárias. Na presente dissertação foi desenvolvida uma metodologia de controle Volt/VAr descentralizado (subestação), por meio da coordenação e controle dos transformadores com mudança de tap sob carga - LTC, dos bancos de capacitores localizados na subestação e ao longo dos alimentadores, bem como dos reguladores de tensão instalados ao longo dos alimentadores. Destaca-se a utilização da técnica de Estimação de Estados, a qual possibilita o uso da metodologia de controle Volt/VAr em tempo real. O algoritmo de otimização desenvolvido neste trabalho foi implementado através de simulações numa rede teste e numa rede real que permitem mostrar o potencial da formulação matemática desenvolvida. Os resultados da metodologia proposta comprovam a melhoria do perfil de tensão dos alimentadores da rede testada ao longo do dia, assim como uma diminuição das perdas técnicas, as quais chegaram a diminuir 7% em energia. Estes resultados foram alcançados sem ultrapassar a quantidade de operações definidas por dia nos diferentes dispositivos de controle. / Currently, power utilities face challenges in order to provide energy considering minimum requirements of power quality and reliability due to the absence of control and monitoring infrastructure, aging assets, growing demand, amongst others. In Brazil, the Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica (ANEEL) establishes specific power quality and reliability indices. Power utilities should attend the limits for those indices by improving intelligence of network using IT systems, installing Intelligent Electric Devices (IEDs), smart meters and sensors, amongst others. Additionally, communication infrastructure is needed to provide the monitoring of load conditions and distribution system state. Optimization and decision-making tools are important for developing smart grids. Voltage control and reactive power management (Volt/VAr) are automation techniques that can be used in distribution systems. These practices lead to benefits for the utilities such as improvement of reliability and efficiency of the system, minimization of operation and maintenance costs, amongst others. In the present dissertation a methodology for decentralized control (Volt/VAr) was developed, through the coordination and control of load tap changers (LTCs) in power transformers and capacitors banks located at the substation, as well as capacitor banks and voltage regulators scattered throughout the feeders. State Estimation was utilized, which allows the application of the Volt/VAr Control methodology in real time environment. The optimization algorithm developed in this work was implemented through simulations in a test network and in a real network which validated the proposed methodology showing the potentiality of the mathematical model. The results of the proposed method showed voltage profile improvement over the day for the network tested as well as a 7% decrease in power energy losses. These results were achieved without exceeding the number of operations per day defined for all control devices.

Um equipamento sinalizador luminoso de faltas foi desenvolvido pela Companhia Paulista de Força e Luz (CPFL) em parceria com a Escola Politécnica da USP e a empresa Expertise Engenharia Ltda., através de uma série de projetos de pesquisa incluídos no programa de pesquisa e desenvolvimento (P&D) regido pela Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica (ANEEL) brasileira. Neste trabalho é feita uma análise crítica da rota tecnológica adotada no desenvolvimento do sinalizador de faltas, apontando detalhes e justificativas das escolhas tecnológicas adotadas, além de novas possibilidades de melhoria do equipamento face aos avanços tecnológicos detectados nos últimos anos. Para tanto, é proposto e aplicado um novo método, associado a uma sistematização, para análise comparativa de tecnologias, que considera dados quantitativos, qualitativos e estratégicos diretamente comparáveis entre si. Ao longo do trabalho são analisados as escolhas dos princípios de detecção de faltas e funcionalidades agregadas, o desenvolvimento da eletrônica e dos circuitos integrados do detector de faltas, a fonte de alimentação, a sinalização luminosa e o gabinete do equipamento. Como resultado da linha de pesquisa do sinalizador luminoso de faltas foram obtidos protótipos de prova de conceito, cabeça-de-série e de lote pioneiro, estes últimos prontos e certificados para inserção no mercado. Obtiveram-se também diversas publicações em congressos nacionais, a geração de dois pedidos de patentes e um sistema computacional de alocação otimizada de sinalizadores de faltas em redes de distribuição aérea de energia elétrica. / Within the R&D program governed by the National Agency of Electric Energy of Brazil, a luminous faulted circuit indicator equipment (FCI) was developed by the Companhia Paulista de Força e Luz (CPFL) in partnership with the Escola Politécnica da USP and the company Expertise Engenharia Ltda. In this work it is presented a critical analysis of the technological route adopted for development of this new FCI, indicating details and justifications of technological choices adopted, and new detected possibilities for improvements, taken into account the technological advances in recent years. For such purpose, it is proposed a new method, associated to a practical systematization, for comparative analysis of technologies that accounts for quantitative, qualitative and strategic data directly comparable. The work presents analyses on the choices of fault detection principles and related functions, the development of integrated circuits and fault detector electronics, the power supply, the luminous signaling and the equipment case. As results of the research and development of the FCI there were obtained proof of concept, prototype and pilot equipments, the last ones certified and ready for sale. There were also obtained several publications in national conferences, submission of two patent applications and a software for optimization of FCIs allocation on overhead power distribution networks.

Orientador: José Roberto Sanches Mantovani / Resumo: Neste trabalho propõem-se formulações matemáticas e metodologias para resolver o problema de planejamento da expansão e operação de sistemas de distribuição de energia elétrica de longo prazo com instalação de geração distribuída despachável, renovável e dispositivos armazenadores de energia, considerando as incertezas nos parâmetros e variáveis envolvidas no comportamento do sistema. No modelo de otimização desenvolvido considera- se uma formulação com espaço de busca convexo como um problema de programação cônica inteira de segunda ordem. Como primeira metodologia de solução para o modelo matemático proposto, usam-se solvers de otimização comerciais através de linguagem de programação matemática. Em segundo lugar é proposta a técnica de otimização meta-heurística VND combinada com um solver de otimização para resolver o modelo de otimização desenvolvido. Os algoritmos e modelos matemáticos de otimização usados para resolver o planejamento de sistemas de distribuição são implementados em AMPL e testados em sistemas presentes na literatura. Finalmente são comparadas as metodologias segundo a solução obtida e desempenho em tempo computacional. / Abstract: This work proposes mathematical formulations and methodologies to solve the long-term electric power distribution system operation and expansion planning with distributed renewable energy sources and energy storage devices, considering the uncertainties in the involved parameters and variables in the system behavior. In the developed optimization model, a convex formulation is considered as integer second-order conic programming problem. The first solution methodology for the proposed mathematical model, the commercial optimization solvers that uses mathematical modelling language is used. In the second way, the VND meta-heuristic optimization technique is proposed combined with the optimization solver to analyze the obtained solutions of the search through optimal neighborhoods. The mathematical optimization model and the proposed algorithm used to solver the planning of distribution systems are implemented in AMPL and tested in literature’s systems. Finally, the methodologies according to the obtained solution and computational time performance are compared. / Doutor