Despite the steady growth of electronic commerce (e-commerce), Lesotho and SADC users are uncertain of how to securely sign e-communications practicably. This results in users' lack of confidence in the use of e-commerce. SADC and Lesotho regulatory bodies have developed legal instruments including model laws and bills in an attempt to regulate electronic signatures (e-signatures) in e-commerce to address this problem amongst others. However, it is unclear whether the approach adopted will ensure that the regulatory instruments effectively regulate e-signatures and consequently promote the growth of e-commerce and enhance the socio-economic development of the state. This study examines what the information and communications technology regulatory principles of functional equivalence and technology neutrality entail, their interpretation by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), and their appropriateness for effective regulation of e-signatures through conceptual analysis. In particular it examines the UNCITRAL Model Laws on e-commerce, UNCITRAL Model on e-signature and the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts. The study describes the technical operation of different offline and online signatures in order to appreciate how e-signatures should be regulated. Through textual analysis, it examines whether regulatory instruments of Lesotho and SADC correctly apply the theories in a way that will render use of e-signatures practicable and their regulation effective. It also examines initiatives on regulation of e-signatures in South Africa, the United States of America and the European Union. The study reveals that the purpose of the signature formality is to promote certainty, prevent fraud and provide evidence of a contract despite the form of signature. Although not perfect, functional equivalence and technology neutrality principles render regulation of electronic signatures effective since rules that align with them promote equivalence of legal treatment between offline and online signatures. Consequently, the UNCITRAL's Convention reflects that ordinary e-signatures can meet purposes of the signature formality where appropriate if they observe its functional equivalence criteria. However, the reliability of such electronic signatures is a question of evidence as is the case in offline contracts. Thus, soft laws on electronic evidence must complement the e-signature rules to ensure equivalent legal treatment of signatures. The study reveals that the Lesotho instruments do not fully align with the regulatory principles whereas the SADC instrument closely aligns with them. To different extents, these instruments do not adequately address the problems of users and may inhibit the growth of e-commerce. It further found that the instruments erroneously exclude certain matters such as wills from e-signature application while they correctly exclude others such as negotiable instruments from e-signature application. Lastly it found that the UNCITRAL convention and the US instruments provide better models for effective regulation of e-signatures. By implementing amendments suggested by this study, Lesotho and SADC will address the challenges faced by e-commerce users and make the use of e-signatures feasible for all. Consequently, the instruments will effectively increase the growth of e-commerce and in turn enhance the development of socio economic growth of the SADC region.

Thesis (M.M. (ICT Policy and Regulation))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, Graduate School of Public and Development Management, 2013. / This is a study of the effectiveness of e-signature regulation in South Africa. The primary objective is to analyse South Africa’s e-signature regulatory frameworks and approaches in order to produce findings on its current status and its effectiveness. To do this, the research included the development of a conceptual framework that identifies key themes of analysis for effective electronic signature regulation and a research approach that produces findings from qualitative analysis of multiple sources of data. The report specifically considers the effectiveness of the regulation in rendering electronic signatures a legally valid, secure and trustworthy method of concluding electronic transactions as the key tenets of effectiveness. The report concludes that the regulation is ineffective in various aspects including outdated legislative approaches and technical standards as well as various delays and inefficiencies in implementing the regulations which detract from the regulatory intent.

The use of digital services has never been as important as it is today.It is possible to do everything from researching family history to banktransactions on the Internet. This creates a demand for secure servicesto ensure secure authentication of users. Electronic signatures havebecome an important part of e-identification over the last year due tothe the COVID-19 pandemic forcing many people to work remotely.OpenID Connect, or OIDC, is a framework that supports secureauthentication and authorization. But, it does not support electronicsignatures. The work done in this project has shown that an extensionof the OIDC framework is feasible for electronic signatures.A proof of concept has been built to analyse if an extension tothe OIDC framework was possible. The signature flow implementedis structured according to a proposal developed by an experiencedgroup of people working with e-identification. It extends the OIDCauthentication request with additional information to enable supportfor electronic signatures. The signature is done using BankID as an IDP.This work shows that it is possible to perform an electronic sig-nature, with an OpenID Connect authentication flow with signatureextension. The work has focuses on one model using an IDP thatperforms signing. An approach with a stand-alone signature service ispossible, but would be more complex for a limited proof of concept.

Everything regarding signatures, both physical and electronic, is based upon trust between the contracting parties. A signature must therefore be both reliable and secure to be used by the parties. In the recent years the use of electronic signatures has increased, and a legal framework has been established by the European union (EU) with the EU-regulation on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market (eIDAS).  In the regulation three different categories of electronic signatures occur: the (simple) electronic signature, the advanced electronic signature and the qualified electronic signature. What mainly distinguishes the categories are the level of safety devices connected to the signature. The qualified electronic signature has the highest level of safety devices, followed by the advanced electronic signature, which is followed by the simple electronic signature that has either few or no safety devices. Swedish law differs from the eIDAS since there is no division into different categories. In this essay I examine and evaluate the safety, and thus the reliability of, the different categories of electronic signatures are. This is done through methods established in precedents from Swedish Courts.  The conclusion of the essay is that the reliability and safety of the electronic signature correlates with the level of safety devices connected to the signature. If an electronic signature has a higher level of safety devices, it should be regarded as more reliable and secure. I therefore advice contracting parties to use the simple electronic signatures with caution, especially if the contract is of high value, and instead use an electronic signature with more robust safety devices.

Il est nécessaire qu'une signature électronique garde ses propriétés de sécurité durant sa période archivage légale. La première partie de ce mémoire adresse cette problématique en formalisant la validation de signature à long terme. On utilise notre modèle pour définir la sémantique d'une règle de résolution de litige et pour formaliser plusieurs notions tels que la preuve de jugement, son expiration et son renouvellement. La révocation est l'un des principaux aspects formalisés par le modèle. La gestion de la révocation est particulièrement critique pour une Autorité de Certification. Dans un premier temps, on investigue différent niveaux de compromission et de révocations. Ensuite, on adresse la sécurité de l'application de signature de certificats. On propose une solution qui permet au module cryptographique de l'AC de déléguer les vérifications sur les requêtes de signature de certificats, à un environnement moins sécurisé mais avec une puissance de calcul plus importante. / Nowadays digital signature schemes and infrastructures have time limitations. This situation is disturbing considering that there are many cases, such as government records, where the signatures are required to be kept valid for a long period of time. In this thesis, we address this issue by modeling signature validation in the scope of a dispute between a verifier and a signer. The model is accompanied with a formal calculus to formalize several important concepts in the scope of long-term validation, such as judgment proof, proof expiration and renewal. Certificate revocation is one of the main issues considered by the model. Revocation is particularly critical for a Certification Authority (CA). We investigate this issue in the scope of the revocation settings allowed in X.509 and we show that some settings permit efficient countermeasures to prevent the revocation of the CA. For the same objective, we investigate approaches allowing to combine hardware protection with fine-tuned control on the usage of the CA's key. We propose a general solution which allows the execution of the of CA's certification policies at a processor which runs in an insecure environment under the control of the CA's secure module.

Elektroniese kommunikasie en handel is 'n verskynsel wat eksponensieel toegeneem het oar die laaste dekade saammet die ontwikkeling en uitbreiding van die Internet. Ten einde kompeterend te wees in die internasionale arena is dit belangrik dat Suid-Afrika 'n klimaat skep waarin elektroniese handel kan floreer. Daar bestaan egter die perspesie dat die huidige regsbedeling onvanpas en onvoldoende is om die kwessies wat ontstaan as gevolg van elektroniese handel te kan hanteer. In 1996 het die kommissie van die Verenigde Nasies gemoeid met internasionale handel, UNCITRAL die Mode/wet oor Elektroniese Handel gefinaliseer. Sederdien is die Modelwet opgeneem in wetgewing of het wetgewing be"invloed in verskeie Iande. Een van die onderliggende beginsels waarop die Mode/wet gebaseer is, is "funksionele gelykheid" ten einde met snel veranderende tegnologie tred te hou. Hierdie beginsel behels dat in ons soektog na regsoplosssings, papiergebaseerde oplossings nie netso nageboots moet word nie maar dat daar eerder gestreef word na ekwivalente regsoplossings binne die tegnologies raamwerk. Die Wet op Elektroniese Kommunikasie en Transaksies is die SuidAfrikaanse antwoord op hierdie internasionale verwikkelinge. Die oogmerk van hierdie skripsie is om artikels 11 tot 13, 18 en 19 van die Wet te bestudeer en te vergelyk met die Mode/wet. Verder om te ondersoek tot watter mate die doelwitte van die Groenskrif behaal is en in welke mate die Wet die behoeftes van die breer gemeenskap aanspreek, soos dit blyk uit die kommentaar op die Groenskrif. Die Suid-Afrikaanse benadering is gebaseer op internasionale voorbeelde en afwykings daarvan word ook bespreek. Hoewel die persepsie bestaan dat die Suid-Afrikaanse reg nie toegerus is om die veranderings te kan hanteer nie, is dit meerendeels net 'n persepsie. Suid-Afrika beskik oor 'n inherent aanpasbare gemenereg. In my opinie, sou opskrifstelling in 'n elektroniese omgewing nie 'n probleem geskep het binne die gemenereg nie. Dit blyk dat meer onsekerheid oor die aard van handtekeninge bestaan. Dit is waarskynlik dat gevorderde elektroniese handtekeninge (soos in die Wet bespreek) in ieder geval erken sou word. Die nuwe Suid-Afrikaanse Wet oor elektroniese handel ruim egter enige onsekerheid uit die weg. Die Suid-Afrikaanse Wet maak gebruik van verskeie internasionale bronne maar die UNCITRAL Modelwet dien as vertrekpunt. Daar blyk eenstemmigheid in Amerika, die Europese Unie en Australie te wees dat "funksionele gelykheid" die beste manier is om veranderende tegnologie te hanteer. Die beginsel van "funksionele gelykheid" is die goue draad wat deur nie aileen die UNCITRAL Mode/wet maar ook deur die Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing geweef is. Die Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing voeg verskeie beskermingsmeganismes ten einde verbruikers te beskerm teen die gevare van 'gesiglose handel'. Elektroniese skrif word as die ekwivalent van skrif op papier erken. SuidAfrikaanse wetgewing identifiseer die volgende basiese funksies van handtekeninge, naamlik: • Om die persoon te identifiseer; en • Om die persoon se goedkeuring van die inligting te kommunikeer. 'n Addisionele vereiste dat elektroniese handtekeninge so betroubaar as wat gepas was onder die omstandighede moet wees, word bygevoeg. Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing spreek oak die kwessies van notariele parktyk, oorspronklikes, sertifisering en geregistreerde pas aan. In geheel behoort die bepalings rakende vormvereistes positief ontvang te word in die mark aangesien "funksionele gelykheid" behoorlik geimplementeer word en 'n juiste basis is. / Thesis (LL.M. (Import and Export Law))--Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2003

Elektroniese kommunikasie en handel is 'n verskynsel wat eksponensieel toegeneem het oar die laaste dekade saammet die ontwikkeling en uitbreiding van die Internet. Ten einde kompeterend te wees in die internasionale arena is dit belangrik dat Suid-Afrika 'n klimaat skep waarin elektroniese handel kan floreer. Daar bestaan egter die perspesie dat die huidige regsbedeling onvanpas en onvoldoende is om die kwessies wat ontstaan as gevolg van elektroniese handel te kan hanteer. In 1996 het die kommissie van die Verenigde Nasies gemoeid met internasionale handel, UNCITRAL die Mode/wet oor Elektroniese Handel gefinaliseer. Sederdien is die Modelwet opgeneem in wetgewing of het wetgewing be"invloed in verskeie Iande. Een van die onderliggende beginsels waarop die Mode/wet gebaseer is, is "funksionele gelykheid" ten einde met snel veranderende tegnologie tred te hou. Hierdie beginsel behels dat in ons soektog na regsoplosssings, papiergebaseerde oplossings nie netso nageboots moet word nie maar dat daar eerder gestreef word na ekwivalente regsoplossings binne die tegnologies raamwerk. Die Wet op Elektroniese Kommunikasie en Transaksies is die SuidAfrikaanse antwoord op hierdie internasionale verwikkelinge. Die oogmerk van hierdie skripsie is om artikels 11 tot 13, 18 en 19 van die Wet te bestudeer en te vergelyk met die Mode/wet. Verder om te ondersoek tot watter mate die doelwitte van die Groenskrif behaal is en in welke mate die Wet die behoeftes van die breer gemeenskap aanspreek, soos dit blyk uit die kommentaar op die Groenskrif. Die Suid-Afrikaanse benadering is gebaseer op internasionale voorbeelde en afwykings daarvan word ook bespreek. Hoewel die persepsie bestaan dat die Suid-Afrikaanse reg nie toegerus is om die veranderings te kan hanteer nie, is dit meerendeels net 'n persepsie. Suid-Afrika beskik oor 'n inherent aanpasbare gemenereg. In my opinie, sou opskrifstelling in 'n elektroniese omgewing nie 'n probleem geskep het binne die gemenereg nie. Dit blyk dat meer onsekerheid oor die aard van handtekeninge bestaan. Dit is waarskynlik dat gevorderde elektroniese handtekeninge (soos in die Wet bespreek) in ieder geval erken sou word. Die nuwe Suid-Afrikaanse Wet oor elektroniese handel ruim egter enige onsekerheid uit die weg. Die Suid-Afrikaanse Wet maak gebruik van verskeie internasionale bronne maar die UNCITRAL Modelwet dien as vertrekpunt. Daar blyk eenstemmigheid in Amerika, die Europese Unie en Australie te wees dat "funksionele gelykheid" die beste manier is om veranderende tegnologie te hanteer. Die beginsel van "funksionele gelykheid" is die goue draad wat deur nie aileen die UNCITRAL Mode/wet maar ook deur die Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing geweef is. Die Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing voeg verskeie beskermingsmeganismes ten einde verbruikers te beskerm teen die gevare van 'gesiglose handel'. Elektroniese skrif word as die ekwivalent van skrif op papier erken. SuidAfrikaanse wetgewing identifiseer die volgende basiese funksies van handtekeninge, naamlik: • Om die persoon te identifiseer; en • Om die persoon se goedkeuring van die inligting te kommunikeer. 'n Addisionele vereiste dat elektroniese handtekeninge so betroubaar as wat gepas was onder die omstandighede moet wees, word bygevoeg. Suid-Afrikaanse wetgewing spreek oak die kwessies van notariele parktyk, oorspronklikes, sertifisering en geregistreerde pas aan. In geheel behoort die bepalings rakende vormvereistes positief ontvang te word in die mark aangesien "funksionele gelykheid" behoorlik geimplementeer word en 'n juiste basis is. / Thesis (LL.M. (Import and Export Law))--Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, 2003

Electronic contracts in the new technological age and electronic commerce have brought about world-wide legal uncertainty. When compared to the traditional paper-based method of writing and signing, the question has arisen whether contracts concluded by electronic means should be recognised as valid and enforceable agreements in terms of the functional equivalence approach. This study will examine the law regulating e-commerce from a South African perspective in contrast to international trends and e-commerce law from the perspective of the United States. The research investigates various aspects of contract formation such as time and place, validity of electronic agreements, electronic signatures, attribution of electronic data messages and signatures, automated transaction as well as select aspects of e-jurisdiction from a South African and United States viewpoint. / Mercantile Law / LLM

Electronic contracts in the new technological age and electronic commerce have brought about world-wide legal uncertainty. When compared to the traditional paper-based method of writing and signing, the question has arisen whether contracts concluded by electronic means should be recognised as valid and enforceable agreements in terms of the functional equivalence approach. This study will examine the law regulating e-commerce from a South African perspective in contrast to international trends and e-commerce law from the perspective of the United States. The research investigates various aspects of contract formation such as time and place, validity of electronic agreements, electronic signatures, attribution of electronic data messages and signatures, automated transaction as well as select aspects of e-jurisdiction from a South African and United States viewpoint. / Mercantile Law / LLM

Electronic contracts in the new technological age and electronic commerce have brought about world-wide legal uncertainty. When compared to the traditional paper-based method of writing and signing, the question has arisen whether contracts concluded by electronic means should be recognised as valid and enforceable agreements in terms of the functional equivalence approach. This study will examine the law regulating e-commerce from a South African perspective in contrast to international trends and e-commerce law from the perspective of the United States. The research investigates various aspects of contract formation such as time and place, validity of electronic agreements, electronic signatures, attribution of electronic data messages and signatures, automated transaction as well as select aspects of e-jurisdiction from a South African and United States viewpoint. / Mercantile Law / LLM