Este trabalho tem por objetivo analisar como o Ministério Público brasileiro tem exercido a função inovadora que lhe foi atribuída pela Constituição Federal de 1988 para zelar pelo efetivo respeito dos Poderes Públicos e dos serviços de relevância pública ao direito constitucional do meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado, especificamente no tocante à sua atuação em processos de licenciamento ambiental. Para tal fim, adotou-se a metodologia de estudo de caso, com o levantamento de dados junto aos órgãos oficiais (Ministério Público do Estado de São Paulo, Secretaria de Meio Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo, Poder Judiciário, Ministério de Minas e Energia, Agência Nacional de Energia e Eletricidade) e entrevistas com atores representativos dos segmentos envolvidos ou com o caso estudado, associado à revisão legislativa e bibliográfica. O caso concreto foi escolhido a partir da delimitação do recorte geográfico e temporal: as pesquisas limitaram-se ao Estado de São Paulo, aos processos de licenciamento conduzidos pela Secretaria de Meio Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo e à atuação do Ministério Público do Estado de São Paulo, no período compreendido entre 2001 e 2006. Verificou-se que, especialmente a partir da Constituição Federal de 1988, as atribuições e prerrogativas do Ministério Público brasileiro, sem similares no sistema político de outros Estados ocidentais, conferiram-lhe o papel de promover a coercibilidade das normas de proteção ambiental e, ainda, atuar em foro alternativo ao Poder Judiciário para o gerenciamento de conflitos ambientais. Restando incontroversa a relevância de sua atuação na proteção do meio ambiente, constatou-se que, no tocante à fiscalização de processos de licenciamento ambiental conduzidos pelo órgão licenciador, na prática essa atuação acaba por ensejar novos conflitos com a Administração Pública, com reflexos sobre os atores envolvidos com o projeto sob discussão no processo de licenciamento ambiental. Propostas para seu equacionamento são analisadas neste trabalho. / This research seeks to evaluate how the District Attorney Office of Brazil (Ministério Público) has been performing the innovating function of watching over the effective respect of the Public Power and relevant public services regarding the constitutionally right to an ecologically-balanced environment, attributed to it by the Federal Constitution of 1988, wish specific focus on environmental licensing processes. With such purpose, based on the case study methodology, a collection of data within official bodies (District Attorney of São Paulo State, Environmental Protection Agency of the State of São Paulo, Judiciary Power, Mine and Electricity Ministry, National Agency of Energy and Electricity) has been performed, as well as interviews with representative players of the involved segments, legislative and bibliographic reviews. Choice of case study was determined by the scope definition of space and time: researches were limited to the State of São Paulo, to the environmental licensing procedures conducted by the State Environmental Protection Agency and the performance of the District Attorney of São Paulo State, in the period comprehended between 2001 and 2006. Main findings include the fact that, due to the unique role of responsibilities and authority given to the District Attorney Office of Brazil by the Federal Constitution of 1988, it is responsible to promote the effectiveness of the environmental protection legislation as well as acting alternatively to the Judiciary System in the resolution of environmentally-based conflicts and the uncontroversial relevance of its role on the protection of the environment. However, when analyzing its role on the monitoring of environmental licensing processes conducted by the administrative licensing authorities, it was also identified that new conflicts with the Public Administration arise, with reflexes on all actors involved in the environmental licensing process. Purposes for its solution are analyzed in this work.

Renewable energy is a current issue in the world as well as in Turkey. Turkey has developing policies in the renewable energy field. Although it is a beneficial mean of obtaining energy, there are barriers on renewable energy production. In order to develop renewable energies, those barriers have to be analyzed and suitable implementations should be developed to overcome them. In this thesis policy and implementation on the renewables are evaluated in general and specially for Turkey. The electricity market is one of the crucial factors of development of the renewable energy. The day-ahead market and renewable energy support mechanism in Turkey are investigated. Finally benefit calculations is carried out in order to compare benefits of renewable energy in market and support mechanisms by using real time price and production values of two renewable energy plants / a hydropower and a wind power plants. Further, outcomes of newly developed prediction project for wind power plants are evaluated in terms of market benefit.

La plupart des exercices d’analyse de politiques climatiques ou énergétiques font appelà des modèles dits "d’évaluation intégrée" (MEIs). Ces modèles économie-énergie-climat sont des modèles numériques pluridisciplinaires destinés à étudier lesquestions liées au changement climatique et à sa gestion. Socles d’une accumulationde connaissance, ils ont une visée prospective et aident à traduire les débatsqualitatifs des instances de décisions nationales et internationales en un ensemble dedonnées quantitatives, scientifiquement vérifiables. Leur faible capacité à prendre encompte les incertitudes inhérentes à tout exercice de prospective mais aussi leur tropgrande complexité expliquent pourquoi ces MEIs sont si souvent décriés et leurutilisation remise en question.Ce constat a guidé nos travaux dont l’objectif était de contribuer à améliorer larobustesse des MEIs, afin de renforcer la pertinence de leur utilisation pour l’analysede l’impact de politiques économiques sur le climat-énergie. Nous avons d’abordexaminé comment ces modèles participent aux débats sur le changement climatique etcomment améliorer leur utilisation. Nous avons retracé la genèse de ces modèles etleur évolution et analysé les principales critiques qui leur sont adressées. Dans unsecond temps, nous nous sommes focalisés sur l’un des principaux reproches faits auxMEIs : le traitement de l’incertitude. Sur la base de ces analyses, nous avons mis enoeuvre une approche récente de traitement des problèmes d’incertitude paramétrique:l’optimisation robuste, méthode encore très peu utilisée dans le cadre d’étudesprospectives. / Energy-economy and energy-economy-environment models are widely used to assessenergy and climate policies. Developed during the last forty years, these models allowthe study of the interactions between the energy-transport system, the economy andthe climate system. These interactions are very complex as they involve linkages,feedback loops and delays that are not perfectly known and that take place over a longtime horizon.This complexity along with the large uncertainties weighing on the model parametersand main assumptions explain why the use of models in the policy debate, (where themodels address issues on climate change scenarios and on energy planning), is largelycriticized.Based on this observation, our work aimed primarily at increasing the robustness ofthese models, to reinforce the relevance of their use to evaluate economic policyimpacts. At first, we examine how these models should be used to contributeeffectively to the climate and energy policy analysis debate. We review the evolution ofthe modeling practice and question it, discussing its relevance. We then focus on theuncertainty treatment and on the basis of this review, we implement an alternativeway of considering parameter uncertainty when "modeling the future" using robustoptimization.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo analisar como o Ministério Público brasileiro tem exercido a função inovadora que lhe foi atribuída pela Constituição Federal de 1988 para zelar pelo efetivo respeito dos Poderes Públicos e dos serviços de relevância pública ao direito constitucional do meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado, especificamente no tocante à sua atuação em processos de licenciamento ambiental. Para tal fim, adotou-se a metodologia de estudo de caso, com o levantamento de dados junto aos órgãos oficiais (Ministério Público do Estado de São Paulo, Secretaria de Meio Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo, Poder Judiciário, Ministério de Minas e Energia, Agência Nacional de Energia e Eletricidade) e entrevistas com atores representativos dos segmentos envolvidos ou com o caso estudado, associado à revisão legislativa e bibliográfica. O caso concreto foi escolhido a partir da delimitação do recorte geográfico e temporal: as pesquisas limitaram-se ao Estado de São Paulo, aos processos de licenciamento conduzidos pela Secretaria de Meio Ambiente do Estado de São Paulo e à atuação do Ministério Público do Estado de São Paulo, no período compreendido entre 2001 e 2006. Verificou-se que, especialmente a partir da Constituição Federal de 1988, as atribuições e prerrogativas do Ministério Público brasileiro, sem similares no sistema político de outros Estados ocidentais, conferiram-lhe o papel de promover a coercibilidade das normas de proteção ambiental e, ainda, atuar em foro alternativo ao Poder Judiciário para o gerenciamento de conflitos ambientais. Restando incontroversa a relevância de sua atuação na proteção do meio ambiente, constatou-se que, no tocante à fiscalização de processos de licenciamento ambiental conduzidos pelo órgão licenciador, na prática essa atuação acaba por ensejar novos conflitos com a Administração Pública, com reflexos sobre os atores envolvidos com o projeto sob discussão no processo de licenciamento ambiental. Propostas para seu equacionamento são analisadas neste trabalho. / This research seeks to evaluate how the District Attorney Office of Brazil (Ministério Público) has been performing the innovating function of watching over the effective respect of the Public Power and relevant public services regarding the constitutionally right to an ecologically-balanced environment, attributed to it by the Federal Constitution of 1988, wish specific focus on environmental licensing processes. With such purpose, based on the case study methodology, a collection of data within official bodies (District Attorney of São Paulo State, Environmental Protection Agency of the State of São Paulo, Judiciary Power, Mine and Electricity Ministry, National Agency of Energy and Electricity) has been performed, as well as interviews with representative players of the involved segments, legislative and bibliographic reviews. Choice of case study was determined by the scope definition of space and time: researches were limited to the State of São Paulo, to the environmental licensing procedures conducted by the State Environmental Protection Agency and the performance of the District Attorney of São Paulo State, in the period comprehended between 2001 and 2006. Main findings include the fact that, due to the unique role of responsibilities and authority given to the District Attorney Office of Brazil by the Federal Constitution of 1988, it is responsible to promote the effectiveness of the environmental protection legislation as well as acting alternatively to the Judiciary System in the resolution of environmentally-based conflicts and the uncontroversial relevance of its role on the protection of the environment. However, when analyzing its role on the monitoring of environmental licensing processes conducted by the administrative licensing authorities, it was also identified that new conflicts with the Public Administration arise, with reflexes on all actors involved in the environmental licensing process. Purposes for its solution are analyzed in this work.

近年來，全球氣候暖化問題嚴重，造成地球環境的變遷，加上能源安全威脅與經濟、環境永續發展的考量，世界各國對於節能減碳的議題日漸重視。車輛電動化即在減少溫室氣體排放、改善生活環境、加強能源安全及掌握產業發展轉型契機等因素驅動下，成為全球車輛發展的重要趨勢，全球電動車產業結構與產業網絡正在逐漸成形中。 本研究係針對全球主要國家政府在面對電動車這個新興產業發展時，所採取的政策進行分析與探討，並且以日本、美國、中國、德國政府政策為探討目標，從文獻回顧及專業機構報告中整理分析各國政府的產業政策，試圖探討政府的角色與定位，進一步描繪出台灣政府應該扮演的角色，並且提出建議，作為政府於制定產業政策時之參考，期能對電動車產業做出貢獻，讓台灣電動車產業在此波革命浪潮中，創造出更高的價值及競爭力。 本研究發現，電動車新興產業在發展過程中充滿許多經濟面、市場面、環境面以及技術面的發展限制，本研究在羅列出的十六項發展限制中，有高達十一項限制與政府的政策息息相關。汽車百年產業革命成功與否，業界對於政府是否能創造具有競爭優勢的發展環境要求殷切，於是在電池研發技術未臻成熟、產業各項標準尚未建立之際，各國政府紛紛伸出<看得見的那隻手>，從產業研究發展獎勵、消費市場購車、用車以及充電基礎建設普及的促成與補助，配合業者在關鍵技術發展的努力、商業模式的發展、產業群聚的形成、充電基礎建設的普及、維修體系的建置、社會大眾對於環境品質的需求、用車習慣的改變、電動車節能形象的認同……等種種助力，形成產業能量面的推升力量以及市場需求的拉力，形塑出電動車未來發展的良性循環，試圖在此領域內創造出比較優勢，促使這一波新的汽車產業革命形成。 　　值此關鍵時期，台灣政府如何提供本國產業一臂之力，期於未來世界汽車產業佔有一席之地？這是許多業者關心的議題。目前，各國政府紛紛制訂獎勵政策協助業者以及消費者對於電動車發展與使用的認同；尤其德國政府作法積極，從保持人民生活品質、解決石油倚賴問題、強化經濟傳統命脈的汽車工業，從環境結構、基礎設施到社會大眾的消費習慣宣導著手，具體規劃國家新經濟遠景，將德國塑造成世界電動車大國，這是非常值得台灣政府參考的典範。 本研究建議，電動車產業處發展初階段，眾家車廠以及各國政府皆在摸索前行中，台灣政府應參考各國政府政策後，了解台灣產業的優勢與機會，從基礎設施到新能源政策、基本軟硬體投資環境的建置著手，協助業者發展創造出友善的投資環境並且積極發展國內電動車運行，累積出屬於台灣自己的<台灣EV經驗>，協助業者強化電動車相關技術，除藉由電動車的普及來降低國內對於石油的依賴外，倘若能成功推行電動車成為國際典範，讓世界看到台灣先進的科技與環保觀念，提升國際形象，在時機成熟時，提供關鍵零件技術，利用中國的潛在市場，參與國際標準制定，創造出台灣電動車產業的發展空間。 / The worsening problem of global warming in recent years has led to the environmental changes on Earth. This fact, along with the emerging threats to energy security and the call for sustainable economic and environmental development, has drawn increasing worldwide attention on the issues of energy saving and carbon reduction. As a result, the EV (Electric Vehicle) industry is gaining increasing importance in the global automobile market, driven by various motives including reducing greenhouse gas emissions, improving living environment, safeguarding energy security and seizing the opportunities of industrial transformation. The industrial structure and network of the global EV market is gradually taking shape. The purpose of this research is to explore and analyze the policies adopted by the governments of the world’s leading countries on the emerging EV industry, focusing on Japan, the USA, China and Germany. By reviewing historical documents and professional reports, the author has probed the industrial policies of these countries, endeavoring to identify the roles of the governments in this process and, furthermore, to depict the roles and positions of the government of Taiwan. The author has also provided recommendations to the government for developing industrial policies, with the hope that the research results will contribute to the growth of the EV industry in Taiwan and the creation of higher value and competitive advantages in this revolutionary process. It is discovered in this research that a great deal of development restrictions are involved in the growing process of the emerging EV industry, respectively in the economic, market, environmental and technological fields. Among the sixteen development restrictions outlined in this research, there are as many as eleven items which are closely bound up with government policies. The success of this unprecedented industrial revolution, therefore, relies on whether the government can create a development environment with sufficient competitive advantages, which is anxiously longed for by the EV industry. Given the facts that the R&D technologies for the battery industry are not fully mature and various industrial benchmarks are yet to be established, the “visible hands” are offered by governments, one after another, to support the industry. These government initiatives include: providing incentives for industrial R&D, stimulating the consumer market, as well as facilitating and subsidizing the EV car use and recharging infrastructure. Other supportive policies include assisting the EV industry in developing key technologies, building up business models, shaping industrial clusters, expanding recharging infrastructure, establishing the maintenance/repair systems, accommodating to the public demand on environmental quality and the changes in car-using habits, promoting the identification with the energy-saving image of EV’s, etc. All these measures have turned into a pushing force that gives momentum to the industry, as well as a pulling force that booms the market. They contribute to forming a virtuous development cycle for the EV industry in future; help to create comparative advantages in this specific field; and make impossible this new wave of industrial revolution for automobiles. At this critical stage, how would the Taiwan government lend a helping hand so that the local EV industry could gain a stake in the international automobile market in future? This is an issue widely concerned by the industry. Now, many countries are offering incentive policies to help with the development of the industry and build up consumer identification with the electric cars. The German government, particularly, has taken aggressive actions. Apart from the efforts in maintaining/improving the life quality of its people, the government also endeavors to reduce the dependency on imported oil and strengthen the competitiveness of its automobile industry, which is vital to the economic growth of the country. To realize the new economic vision of the country, the German government has developed specific plans, covering various initiatives including environmental structure, infrastructure construction and consumer education, etc. The purpose is to make Germany a leading country for the EV industry. These we believe are the “best practices” to be considered by the Taiwan government. The EV industry is yet at its preliminary stage of development. Governments, as well as EV manufacturers around the world, are all endeavoring to find the right path ahead. It is recommended, therefore, that the government of Taiwan should firstly study the policies of other countries and understand the strengths and weakness of local industries. The initial efforts should be focused on constructing infrastructures, setting up new energy policies and installing the fundamental software/hardware for a friendly investment environment, so as to support the growth of the industry. The government should, in the meantime, actively promote the electric vehicles in the domestic market, build up the unique “EV Experience of Taiwan” to help improving the relevant EV technology for the local industry. Apart from reducing the country’s dependency on imported oil, the successful popularization of EV in Taiwan will also become one of the best practices in the world and contribute to the elevation of Taiwan’s international image, having showcased its advanced technologies and strong environmental awareness. With increasing sophistication, Taiwan’s EV industry also has the capabilities to provide critical spare parts technologies and to play a role, through the potential China market, in the international standard-setting process, thereby creating further expanding possibilities for the industry.

This thesis analyses the necessity for the establishment, main functions and the viability of the Turkish Wholesale Electricity Trading and Contracting Company, TETAS in the short, mean and the long term. In order to understand the necessity for the establishment of TETAS, Turkish Energy Policies such as the state-led energy policies and the competition based market orientation are put under scrutiny. The thesis also discusses whether Turkish Government has carried out a comprehensive, deterministic and effective &ldquo / Liberalization Policy&rdquo / in the electricity sector by looking at the present situation and the principles outlined in Laws No: 4628, 5654 and 5686 and the Strategy Paper. The dissertation then examines the life span of TETAS by looking at the impacts of the strategy paper, liberalization procedure of the overall electricity market and newly enacted laws such as Law No: 5654 and 5686 in the short, mean and the long term. In addition, TETAS is examined whether it is a &ldquo / monopoly&rdquo / or not in Turkish Electricity wholesale market by calculating the supply concentration of TETAS using the Herfindahl Hirschman Index. Despite the studies on the establishment of the liberal market such as the envisagement of Law No: 4628 and the strategy paper, this thesis study envisages that it is still not possible to talk about a liberal electricity market. In addition, it is also concluded that the statements outlined in Laws No: 5654 and 5686 hinder the overall liberalization efforts since these laws are postponing the liberalization of electricity sector and making the life span of TETAS longer. As a result, liberalization efforts on the electricity market are unsuccessful in the mean term and TETAS seems to hold its dominance position in the wholesale market as a state-owned wholesale trading company in the long run.

Indonesia’s energy demand has been growing rapidly driven by increasing population, urbanization, and rapid economic growth. With increasing energy demand, the emissions associated with the energy sector continue to increase. With the gradual increase in demand and dominant share of fossil fuels in the energy mix, implementing the energy efficiency measures is crucial for Indonesia to achieve its energy and climate goals. From the policy perspective, National Energy plan of Indonesia aims to achieve higher levels of energy efficiency to reduce the overall energy intensity. Indonesia also has commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and achieve SDG targets. This report reviews the current status of energy demand and energy efficiency in Indonesia and evaluates the potential of implementing energy efficiency measures and fuel switching options to achieve future low carbon energy future. Long term energy model of Indonesia is modelled using the open-source modelling tool OSeMOSYS. Different scenarios have been developed to investigate the outcome of implementing energy efficiency and fuel switching measures in the Residential, Commercial, and Transportation sectors. The results are presented in terms of reduction in total final energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and local air pollution. Cost-Benefit analysis of the applied measures present their financial feasibility. With the deployment of efficient appliances, up to 30% electricity savings can be achieved in the residential and commercial sector. Vehicle electrification can contribute towards reduction in annual energy use by 48% by the end of modelling period. Measures in the residential and commercial sector directly contribute towards emission reductions. Vehicle electrification does not show proportionate reduction in emissions compared to energy use reduction due to high carbon intensity of the electricity grid. However, significant reduction in local air pollutants can be achieved. Cost benefit analysis shows that deployment of efficient appliances is financially feasible with maximum 2 years of payback period. On the other hand, successful deployment of electric vehicles will require tangible support from government due to its high price premium compared to conventional vehicles. Energy efficiency measures and fuel switching also contribute substantially to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7.3. In conclusion, this study presents a set of technically and economically feasible energy system development options for Indonesia. From the modelling perspective, this study identifies ways to implement demand side management measures in the energy supply modelling system OSeMOSYS. / Indonesiens energibehov har ökat snabbt drivet av ökande befolkning, urbanisering och snabbekonomisk tillväxt. Med ökande energibehov fortsätter utsläppen i energisektorn att öka. Medden gradvisa ökningen i efterfrågan och den dominerande andelen fossila bränslen ienergimixen är genomförandet av energieffektivitetsåtgärderna avgörande för att Indonesienska uppnå sina energi- och klimatmål. Ur politiskt perspektiv syftar Indonesiens nationella energiplan till att uppnå högre nivåer av energieffektivitet för att minska den totala energiintensiteten. Indonesien har också åtaganden att minska utsläppen av växthusgaser och uppnå SDG-mål. Denna rapport granskar den aktuella statusen för efterfrågan på energi och energieffektivitet i Indonesien och utvärderar potentialen för att genomföra energieffektivitetsåtgärder och alternativ för bränsleomkoppling för att uppnå framtida energiförbrukning med låg koldioxid. Indonesiens långsiktiga energimodell modelleras med hjälp av open-sourcemodelleringsverktyget OSeMOSYS. Olika scenarier har utvecklats för att undersöka resultatet av genomförande av energieffektivitet och bränsleomkopplingsåtgärder inom bostads-, kommersiellt och transportsektorn. Resultaten presenteras i termer av minskning av den totalaslutliga energiförbrukningen, växthusgasutsläpp och lokal luftföroreningar. Kostnadsnyttoanalys av de tillämpade åtgärderna utgör deras ekonomiska genomförbarhet. Med användning av effektiva apparater kan upp till 30% elbesparing uppnås i bostads- och affärssektorn. Fordonselektrifiering kan bidra till minskning av den årliga energiförbrukningen med 48% i slutet av modelleringsperioden. Åtgärder inom bostads- och kommersiell sektor bidrar direkt till utsläppsminskningar. Fordonselektrifiering visar inte proportionell minskning av utsläpp jämfört med energiförbrukningen på grund av hög kolintensitet i elnätet. Emellertid kan en betydande minskning av lokala luftföroreningar uppnås. Kostnads för delningsanalys visar att distribution av effektiva apparater är ekonomiskt möjlig med maximalt 2 års återbetalningsperiod. Å andra sidan kommer framgångsrik distribution av elfordon att kräva konkret stöd från regeringen på grund av dess höga prispremie jämfört med konventionella fordon. Energi effektivitetsåtgärder och bränsleomkoppling bidrar också väsentligt till att uppnå mål för hållbar utveckling 7.3. Sammanfattningsvis presenterar denna studie en uppsättning tekniska och ekonomiskt genomförbara energisystemutvecklingsalternativ för Indonesien. Från modelleringsperspektivet identifierar denna studie sätt att implementera hanteringsåtgärder på efterfrågesidan i modelleringssystemet för energiförsörjning OSeMOSYS.

La transition énergétique « bas carbone » au Maghreb, analysée sous l’angle du déploiement de l’énergie solaire pour la production d’électricité, est appréhendée dans un double contexte euro-méditerranéen et national. Elle est notamment le fruit de projets imaginés par des structures supranationales et décidés au plus haut niveau des États. À l’échelle euro-méditerranéenne, des initiatives ont été mises en place pour appuyer le développement à grande échelle de l’énergie solaire, qu’elles émanent de dispositifs intergouvernementaux (Plan Solaire Méditerranéen en 2008) et de consortia industriels privés (Desertec Industrial Initiative, Medgrid en 2009). À l’échelle nationale, les trois pays du Maghreb (Algérie, Maroc, Tunisie) ont formulé, surtout depuis 2009, des politiques de développement des énergies renouvelables, et élaboré, pour leur mise en œuvre, des plans et programmes nationaux. L’objet de cette thèse est d’analyser la mise en œuvre de la transition énergétique « bas carbone » au Maghreb et d’en montrer les implications spatiales et relationnelles aux échelles euro-méditerranéenne et nationale. Ainsi, nous montrons en quoi l’électricité contribue à redéfinir la mise en réseau des espaces régionaux et dans quelles mesures la diffusion des technologies solaires participe à redessiner la géographie de l’électricité au Maghreb. L’objet technique (infrastructure de réseau et unité de production d’électricité à partir de l’énergie solaire) est appréhendé à partir d’une approche systémique, à l’interface des sphères spatiale, politique et économique et sociale. / The « low carbon » transition in the Maghreb, analyzed with a focus on the deployment of solar energy for electricity generation, is considered in both a Euro-Mediterranean and national context. This transition is the result of projects that were designed by supranational organizations and agreed on at the highest level. On a Euro-Mediterranean level, initiatives were implemented to support a large scale development of solar energy, whether it be at an intergovernmental level (Mediterranean Solar Plan, 2008), by private industrial consortia (Desertec Industrial Initiative, Medgrid 2009). At national level, the three Maghreb countries (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), have formulated explicit renewables development policies, (especially since 2009), and established national plans and programs (Moroccan Solar Plan, Tunisian Solar Plan, National Renewable and Efficiency Energy Program in Algeria). The purpose of this thesis is to explore the implementation of the « low carbon » transition in the Maghreb and show what spatial and relational implications it had both at European and national level. Thus, we explain how electrical energy contributes to redefine how regional areas connect and to what extent the implementation of solar technologies helps reshape the geography of electrical energy in the Maghreb. The technical aspect (network infrastructure and electricity production unit by solar energy) will be studied following a systemic approach, at the crossroads of spatial, social, political and economical spheres. / الملخص تسعى الأطروحة إ لى تحليل الانتقال نحو الطاقات الىتجددة وخاصة الشمسية بأقطار الىغرب العربي من خلالإطارين : إطارأورو - متوسطي و إطار قطري مح . يبدو الانتقال الطاقي وكأنه نتاج لىشاريع أعدتها هياكل فوق قطرية .ك ما أن إقرارها تم لى تموضع مبادرات تهدف إ لى ، أ ع ا لى ستويات السياسية . فع الىستوى ا لا ورو - متوسطي استعمال الطاقة الشمسية ع نطاق واسع وهذه الىبادرات ناشئةعن ترتيبات ب ين .(2008 - خطة الطاقة الشمسية الىتوسطية 2009 الحكومات ) مبادرة ديزرتاك اهتمت الأطروحة بأقطار الىغرب العربي الثلاثة )تونس - الجزائر - الىغرب ( مجسدة لى ثلاثة برامج كلى ى : خطة الطاقة الشمسية الىغربية، الىخطط الشم التون ، ا ل لىنامج الوطني للطاقة الىتجددة وكفاءة الطاقة لى الجزائر . إن الغرض من الأطروحة هو كذلك تحليل الانتقال الطاقي بشمال إفريقيا وإبراز أثارها الىجالية والعلائقية ع الىستوىا لا ورو - متوسطي و ع الىستويات الوطنية، ك ما نسعى إ لى إبراز كيفة مساعدة الطاقة الشمسية ع إعادة تعريف الشبكات غ الىستوى الإقليمي وكيف أن إعادة توزيع تكنولوجيا الطاقة الشمسية تشارك لى إعادة رسم جغرافية الكهرباء بشمال إفريقيا .

The People’s Republic of China (PRC) is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. However, the economic expansion is not without complications. Improved standard of living and a growing industrial sector have led to an increased demand of energy, which in turn is contributing to air pollution and land contamination. The research problem of the study is what is keeping existing Energy Services (ES) in Shanghai from being used more frequently. To answer this, a sequential mixed method study is conducted, divided into a qualitative and quantitative part. The literature study indicates a great potential for ES in Shanghai. This is mainly due to great efforts taken in Energy Efficiency (EE), an attempt to face the rapidly increasing population by reducing the usage of energy. A number of barriers for ES are found throughout the existing literature, including market, financial, institutional as well as technological barriers. To further investigate barriers and opportunities on the ES market in Shanghai, 14 semi-structured interviews with relevant stakeholders and academics were conducted. Hypothesizes were formulated based on results from the interview and literature study as well as an expert panel. To test the hypotheses a questionnaire was sent out to real estate developers in Shanghai. This study discovers the need of bringing several in the literature identified barriers to ES in Shanghai up to date. Some barriers were found to be invalid while others were not identified at all. The newly found barriers include market barriers, such as ES having low priority, poor technological understanding among clients, and complications approaching and communicating with potential clients.  For institutional barriers, it was found that the prevalence of low margins in the Chinese industries is holding back stricter regulations. Furthermore, the Energy Service Companies’ (ESCO) lack of understanding of ES from a system perspective is considered a technology barrier. In addition to the barriers, a number of opportunities were found. Improved communication between real estate stakeholders and ESCOs contribute to greater awareness and knowledge, which in turn leads to a higher degree of investment in ES. Differentiation of the services offered by ESCOs may attract new customers who previously were not interested, e.g. companies with short investment horizon. In Shanghai, there are a significant number of subsidies, regulations and laws favoring ES. Moreover, the rapid growth of Shanghai is considered one of the greater opportunities. To conclude, it was found that the maturity level among ESCOs in Shanghai was having large impact on the overall usage of ES. Fixed barriers, i.e. barriers nearly impossible to overcome, together with the large amount of small and inexperienced ESCOs is found to be hindering ES in the Shanghai commercial real estate sector from being used more frequently. / Kina ett är en av de snabbast växande ekonomierna i världen. Den ekonomiska expansionen är emellertid inte helt utan problem. Med bättre levnadsstandard och en allt större industrisektor ökar behovet av energi explosionsartat med förorenad mark och luft som följd.  Studiens problemformulering är vad det är som hindrar befintliga energitjänster i Shanghais byggnadssektor från att användas oftare. För att svara på denna fråga användes en sekventiellt multidisciplinär metod uppdelad i en kvalitativ och- kvantitativ studie. Utifrån litteraturen är det uppenbart att det finns en stor potential för användning av energitjänster i Shanghai. Främst till följd av stora satsningar på energieffektivitet i ett försök att möta den snabbväxande befolkningen med högre krav på levnadsstandard genom att minska energianvändningen. Ett antal hinder existerar emellertid inom Shanghais energitjänstemarknad. Inom dessa inkluderas allt ifrån marknads- och finansiella problem till institutionella och teknologiska komplikationer. För att vidare undersöka vilka problem och möjligheter det finns för energitjänster i Shanghai genomfördes 14 semi-strukturerade intervjuer med involverade aktörer och akademiker i Shanghai. Baserat på resultatet från intervjuerna tillsammans med litteraturstudien och en expert panel formulerades hypoteser härrörande energitjänstesituationen. För att testa hypoteserna genomfördes en enkätundersökning riktad till fastighetsutvecklare i Shanghai. Studien visade att många av de tidigare utpekade hindren för energitjänster i Shanghai behövdes uppdateras, varav vissa visade sig vara obsoleta och några inte gick att verifiera. Bland de nyfunna barriärerna kan nämnas marknadsbarriärer som låg prioritering för energitjänster, låg teknisk kompetens bland fastighetsägare samt svårigheter för energitjänstebolag att närma och kommunicera med potentiella kunder. För de institutionella barriärerna framgick att låga marginaler inom den kinesiska industrin håller tillbaka hårdare regleringar. Inom de tekniska barriärerna framkom att energitjänstebolag generellt sett brister i deras kunskap om energitjänster som kan tillgodose hela byggnaders energisystem. Utöver problemen identifierades även betydande möjligheter. Ökad kommunikation mellan aktörerna bidrar till större kunskap vilket i sin tur leder till en högre grad av energitjänsteinvesteringar. Genom att differentiera de tjänster energitjänsteföretag erbjuder kan de hitta nya kunder som tidigare inte varit intresserade, framförallt sådana med kort investeringshorisont. I Shanghai finns det ett betydande antal subventioneringar, regler och lagar som gynnar energitjänster. Även Shanghais tillväxt ses som en av de stora möjligheterna. Studien kommer fram till att en låg mognadsgraden bland energitjänstebolag i Shanghai negativt påverkan användningen av energitjänster. Existensen av flera fasta barriärer, barriärer som är svåra att påverka, tillsammans med det faktum att majoriteten av energitjänstebolag är små och oerfarna ses som den främsta orsaken till att energitjänster inte används i större utsträckning i Shanghai.

Energy communities are formed to create integrated regional energy market in EU and non- EU neighboring countries. It attracts investors in generation and energy networks as it comes up with new stable regulations, so that it will ensure the supply is stable and continuous. Five EU countries (Germany, Italy, Sweden, Greece, Austria) with different policies are selected and simulations are done. Economic analysis for the 5 countries is done based on simulation results. The selected 5 EU countries shows a good economic result; therefore, it can be recommended to implement energy communities and cities by developing the directives. By transposition of policies of the energy community and implementing more subsidies or incentive will make a better contribution for the citizen partnership for creating CEC.