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<p> The Notch signalling pathway is a lateral inhibition pathway that serves to limit the number of cells in a proneural cluster (a group of equipotent cells) that will adopt a neural cell fate during neurogenesis in Drosophila. The proper segregation of neural and epidermal progenitor cells during neurogenesis requires the expression of both the proneural genes and the neurogenic genes. Expression of proneural genes, such as achaete, gives cells the potential to commit to a neural cell fate. The neurogenic genes encode proteins that act in the Notch signalling cascade and are required for cell fate determination during Drosophila neurogenests. Notch and Delta are neurogenic genes that encode large transmembrane proteins. Interaction between the extracellular domains of Notch and Delta is thought to transmit a signal to the nucleus by way of the DNAbinding Suppressor of Hairless protein. In response to Notch activation Suppressor of Hairless is translocated to the nucleus where it activates the transcription ofthe neurogenic genes ofthe Enhancer of split complex (E(spl)-C). The products of the E(spl)-C are bHLH transcription factors. They possess a Cterminal tryptophan-arginine-proline-tryptophan (WRPW) motif that interacts with the product of another neurogenic gene, groucho. The groucho gene product encodes a protein containing a WD40 repeat element. When bound to Groucho, E(spl) bHLH proteins are able to repress transcription of proneural genes, such as achaete, thereby directing the cell to adopt a non-neural cell fate.</p> <p> A number of murine groucho homologues have been identified and named Grg's (Groucho related genes). Three full length Grg proteins have been identified which contain all five domains found in the Drosophila Groucho protein. Two short Grg proteins have also been identified which only contain one of the domains found in the full-length Grg proteins. A number of murine homologues of the Drosophila E(spl)-C have also been identified and named Hes (Hairy/Enhancer of split) proteins. Like the gene products of the Drosophila E(spl)-C, the Hes proteins are bHLH proteins containing a C-terminal WRPW motif. One of the Hes proteins, Hes3, is lacking a basic domain and therefore lacks the DNA-binding activity possessed by the other Hes proteins. </p> <p> Attempts were made to detect interactions between Grg and Hes proteins using co-immunoprecipitation techniques. The anti-WD40 antibody, which recognizes the long WD40-containing Grg proteins, was able to specifically immunoprecipitate 35S-labelled Grgl . This antibody was also able to recognize WD40-containing Grg proteins present in Pl9 cell extracts. However, attempts to co-immunoprecipitate radiolabelled Hesl and AMLlb proteins with Grg proteins present in P19 cell extract were unsuccessful due to the low affinity of the antiWD40 antibody and the background caused by the binding of the test proteins to Sepharose. A second method of co-immunoprecipitation was attempted using an HA-tagged Grgl fusion protein and a commercially available anti-HA antibody. The attempt to co-immunoprecipitate 35S-labelled Hesl with radiolabelled HAtagged Grg 1 was unsuccessful due to a high degree of background caused by Hesl binding to protein G Agarose. Using the Yeast Two-Hybrid interaction assay, the WD40-containing Grg proteins, Grgl and Grg4, were found to interact with Hesl. However, using the same assay WD40-containing Grg proteins were found not to interact with Hes3, which lacks DNA-binding activity. A Western blot was performed to determine if the Hes3 fusion proteins were being expressed in transformed yeast but none were detected. This may have been due to the poor affinity of the anti-GAL4 activation domain antibody. A similar Western blot demonstrated that the Grg proteins, fused to the GAL4 DNA binding domain, were being expressed in transformed yeast extract. The WD40-containing Grg proteins, Grgl and Grg4, were also found not to interact with AMLlb, a protein which contains a C-terminal VWRPY domain which is reminiscent of the Cterminal WRPW interaction domain found in Hes proteins and Drosophila E(spl) proteins. However, WD40-containing Grg proteins were able to interact with an AML 1 b mutant in which the VWRPY motif was mutated to VWRPW in the Yeast Two Hybrid assay. </p> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Thesis advisor: Jeffrey H. Chuang / Gene regulation is perhaps least understood among vertebrate species, where cell differentiation, tissue-types and body-plans indicate a complexity in need of careful coordination to achieve such hierarchical design. Recent studies reveal the intricacy of vertebrate gene regulation through diverse events including transcriptional regulatory histone modifications and non-coding DNA [1-5]. Almost 98% of the human genome is noncoding DNA, much of which may be actively involved in regulating healthy and disease-state gene expression and environmental response [6]. Conserved noncoding elements (CNEs) are sequences of noncoding DNA that are known to regulate gene expression [7-9]. The CNEs identified thus far are a small percentage of the total noncoding DNA in the human genome, and many identified CNEs still lack experimental characterization [10]. Thus, there is a need for functional characterization and streamlined identification of CNEs in order to more fully annotate vertebrate genomes and understand gene expression. The work in this thesis identified over 6000 CNEs and experimentally characterized over 150 CNEs conserved between zebrafish and human (> 60% DNA sequence conservation), using the experimental model Danio rerio (zebrafish). Functional, tissue and time-specific CNEs were identified through analysis of conservation, accelerated evolution, distance, GC content, motifs, transcription factors and gene function. In addition, a searchable database and website was created to host data and facilitate collaborative research between experimental and computational labs. While non-coding DNA is an important area of discovery for gene regulation, protein-coding DNA also has the potential to contain non-coding transcriptional information. DNA is typically conceptualized as either noncoding or protein coding. An underlying assumption to this framework assumes that the function of noncoding DNA is "regulatory" and coding DNA is "protein coding." Consequently, the potential for DNA to harbor both types of information in one sequence has been minimally researched. For the second-half of this thesis, I identified and experimentally tested 31 conserved coding exons ( > 60% zebrafish and human DNA sequence conservation) in zebrafish. To improve annotation of live embryonic expression, a novel voice-recognition expression analysis system was developed that allows quick comparison and annotation of embryonic expression at the microscope. In addition, a website and webtool to calculate significant expression was created as a resource for experimental research on anatomical analysis in whole organisms. The experimental results show that a large number of protein-coding DNA sequences can act as non-coding enhancers. This knowledge may impact methods to identify noncoding signals and, further, the scientific conceptualizations of coding and noncoding DNA in the genome. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2011. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Biology.

A sinalização celular desencadeada na presença do hormônio andrógeno em células da próstata é dependente da ativação do receptor de andrógeno (AR), que é um fator de transcrição codificado pelo gene NR3C4. O AR quando não ligado ao hormônio andrógeno é encontrado no citoplasma, e a ligação do hormônio ao AR promove seu deslocamento para o núcleo. O AR se liga a motivos de DNA, promovendo a transcrição de determinados genes por meio de um complexo mecanismo de regulação ainda não totalmente conhecido. Neste trabalho exploramos a capacidade dos RNAs longos intergênicos não-codificadores (lincRNAs) se ligarem ao AR e contribuírem para a regulação transcricional de genes. Utilizamos a imunoprecipitação de RNA, seguida de sequenciamento em larga escala (RIP-Seq) para a identificação e quantificação de lincRNAs associados fisicamente ao AR na linhagem celular de próstata LNCaP. Em paralelo utilizamos dados de transcriptoma e de marcas epigenéticas para verificar se a interação física dos lincRNAs com o AR influenciaria a composição da cromatina e a expressão dos genes vizinhos desses ARA-lincRNAs (Androgen Receptor Associated LincRNAs). Como resultado deste estudo descrevemos pela primeira vez centenas de LincRNAs associados fisicamente ao receptor de andrógeno após o tratamento com o hormônio. Observamos que uma parte desses ARA-lincRNAs pode modificar in cis a expressão de genes codificadores de proteínas vizinhos e essa capacidade de regulação é reforçada pela presença de marcas epigenéticas que são características de reguladores in cis. Além disso, mostramos que as regiões da cromatina contendo domínios topologicamente associativos (TADs) que possuem ARA-lincRNAs apresentam fatores de transcrição, marcas epigenéticas e nível de transcrição gênica diferenciadas. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho estendem a importância dos lincRNAs durante eventos regulatórios complexos e mostra pela primeira a atuação dessas moléculas em sinergia com um fator de transcrição modificando a cromatina e alterando a regulação gênica. / The cell signaling events triggered in the presence of the androgen hormone in prostate cells is dependent on the activation of the androgen receptor (AR), which is a transcription factor encoded by the NR3C4 gene. AR when not bound to the androgen hormone is found in the cytoplasm, and binding of the hormone to AR promotes its displacement to the nucleus. AR binds to DNA motifs, promoting the transcription of certain genes through a complex regulatory mechanism not yet fully undestood. In this work we explore the ability of long non-coding intergenic RNAs (lincRNAs) to bind to AR and contribute to the transcriptional regulation of genes. We used immunoprecipitation of RNA, followed by large-scale sequencing (RIP-Seq) for the identification and quantification of lincRNAs physically associated with AR in the LNCaP prostate cell line. In parallel we used transcriptome data and data on epigenetic marks to verify whether the physical interaction of lincRNAs with AR would influence the chromatin composition and the expression of genes neighboring these ARA-lincRNAs (Androgen Receptor Associated LincRNAs). As a result of this study we described for the first time in the literature hundreds of LincRNAs physically associated with the androgen receptor after treatment with the hormone. We have observed that part of these ARA-lincRNAs can modify in cis the expression of neighboring protein coding genes and this regulatory ability is enhanced by the presence of epigenetic marks that are characteristic of in cis regulators. In addition, we have shown that chromatin regions containing topologically associating domains (TADs) that possess ARA-lincRNAs have different transcription factors, epigenetic marks and gene transcription levels. The results presented in this work extend the importance of the lincRNAs during complex regulatory events and shows for the first time the performance of these molecules in synergy with a transcription factor modifying the chromatin and altering gene regulation.

LSD1 et PHF2 sont des déméthylases de lysines capables de déméthyler à la fois les protéines histones qui influencent l’expression génique et les protéines non histones en affectant leurs activités ou stabilités. Des approches fonctionnelles d’inactivation de Lsd1 ou Phf2 chez la souris ont démontré l’implication de ces enzymes dans l'engagement des cellules progénitrices au cours de la différenciation. La myogenèse est l'un des exemples les mieux caractérisés sur la façon dont les cellules progénitrices se multiplient et se différencient pour former un organe fonctionnel. Elle est initiée par une expression temporelle spécifique des gènes régulateurs cibles. Parmi ces facteurs, MYOD est un régulateur clé de l'engagement dans la différenciation des cellules progénitrices musculaires. Bien que l’action de MYOD au cours de la différenciation cellulaire ait été largement étudiée, peu de chose sont connus sur les événements de remodelage de la chromatine associés à l'activation de l'expression de MyoD. Parmi les régions régulatrices de l'expression de MyoD, la région Core Enhancer (CE) qui est transcrite en ARN activateur non codant (CEeRNA) a été démontrée pour contrôler l'initiation de l'expression de MyoD au cours de l'engagement de myoblastes dans la différenciation.Nous avons identifié LSD1 et PHF2 comme des activateurs clés du CE de MyoD. L'invalidation in vitro et in vivo de LSD1 ou l'inhibition de l'activité enzymatique de LSD1 empêche le recrutement de l'ARN PolII sur le CE, empêchant l’expression du CEeRNA. D’après nos résultats, l'expression forcée du CEeRNA restaure efficacement l'expression de MyoD et la fusion myoblastique en l'absence de LSD1. De plus, PHF2 interagit avec LSD1 en régulant sa stabilité protéique.En effet, l'ablation in vitro de PHF2 entraîne une dégradation massive de LSD1 et donc une absence d'expression du CEeRNA. Cependant, toutes les modifications d'histones qui ont lieu dans la région du CE lors de l'activation de la différenciation ne peuvent pas être directement attribuées à l'activité enzymatique de LSD1 ou PHF2. Ces résultats soulèvent la question de l'identité des partenaires de LSD1 et PHF2, qui co-participeraient à l'expression du CEeRNA et donc à l'engagement des myoblastes dans la différenciation cellulaire. / LSD1 and PHF2 are lysine de-methylases that can de-methylate both histone proteins, influencing gene expression and non-histone proteins, affecting their activity or stability. Functional approaches using Lsd1 or Phf2 inactivation in mouse have demonstrated the involvement of these enzymes in the engagement of progenitor cells into differentiation. One of the best-characterized examples of how progenitor cells multiply and differentiate to form functional organ is myogenesis. It is initiated by the specific timing expression of the specific regulatory genes; among these factors, MYOD is a key regulator of the engagement into differentiation of muscle progenitor cells. Although the action of MYOD during muscle differentiation has been extensively studied, still little is known about the chromatin remodeling events associated with the activation of MyoD expression. Among the regulatory regions of MyoD expression, the Core Enhancer region (CE), which transcribes for a non-coding enhancer RNA (CEeRNA), has been demonstrated to control the initiation of MyoD expression during myoblast commitment. We identified LSD1 and PHF2 as key activators of the MyoD CE. In vitro and in vivo ablation of LSD1 or inhibition of LSD1 enzymatic activity impaired the recruitment of RNA PolII on the CE, resulting in a failed expression of the CEeRNA. According to our results, forced expression of the CEeRNA efficiently rescue MyoD expression and myoblast fusion in the absence of LSD1. Moreover PHF2 interacts with LSD1 regulating its protein stability. Indeed in vitro ablation of PHF2 results in a massive LSD1 degradation and thus absence of CEeRNA expression. However, all the histone modifications occurring on the CE region upon activation cannot be directly attributed to LSD1 or PHF2 enzymatic activity. These results raise the question of the identity of LSD1 and PHF2 partners, which co-participate to CEeRNA expression and thus to the engagement of myoblast cells into differentiation.

FOXL2 constitue un gène majeur de la différenciation et de la fonction ovarienne. Chez l’Homme, l’haploinsuffisance de ce gène induit des malformations palpébrales qui peuvent être associées ou non à une insuffisance ovarienne prématurée (BPES de type I ou II). Dans certains cas, des anomalies de l’expression de FOXL2 sont liées à des délétions de régions situées très en amont du gène, témoignant de la présence d’activateurs distaux. L’existence de cette régulation à longue distance a aussi été mise en évidence dans l’espèce caprine par notre équipe. La mutation naturelle PIS (Polled Intersex Syndrome) induit à l’état homozygote l’absence d’expression du gène FOXL2 dans les gonades XX, conduisant au développement de testicules à la place d’ovaires. Ainsi, au cours de mon doctorat j’ai été amenée à travailler sur deux aspects différents : (i) l’analyse des cibles/voies activées par FOXL2 dans la gonade, et (ii) l’étude de la régulation à distance de l’expression de FOXL2.En ce qui concerne le premier point, l’analyse du rôle d’un gène candidat, Dmxl2, chez la souris a nécessité la mise en place d’une invalidation conditionnelle de ce gène (Knock-out ou KO) dans les gonades (le KO total étant létal à la naissance). Chez les mâles, une diminution de 60% de la production de spermatozoïdes a été observée à la puberté pendant la première vague de spermatogénèse.En ce qui concerne le second point, l’étude d’une région régulatrice potentielle de l’expression de FOXL2 a permis de définir des éléments très conservés présentant un profil épigénétique caractéristique de régions de type « enhancers ». J’ai ensuite établi un modèle in vitro « d’édition de l’épigénome » du locus FOXL2, en utilisant la technologie CRISPR/dCas9-p300 pour modifier la marque épigénétique H3K27ac et activer l’expression de ce gène. A long terme, ces travaux pourraient aboutir à la création de « médicaments épigénétiques » pour soutenir l’expression de FOXL2 et rétablir la fertilité des patientes atteintes d’une mutation de ce gène. / FOXL2 is a major gene for ovarian differentiation and functions. In humans, FOXL2 haploinsufficiency induces eyelid malformations with or without premature ovarian failure (BPES type I or II). In some cases, abnormalities of FOXL2 expression are related to deletions of regions located far upstream of this gene, indicating the presence of distal activators. The existence of this long-range regulation has also been demonstrated in the goat species by our laboratory. The natural mutation PIS (Polled Intersex Syndrome) when homozygous induces the silencing of FOXL2 expression in XX gonads, leading to the development of testes instead of ovaries. Thus, during my PhD, I worked on two different aspects: (i) the analysis of FOXL2-activated targets/pathways in the gonad, and (ii) the study of the long-range regulation of FOXL2 expression.Regarding the first point, gene function analysis of the candidate gene Dmx12 required the establishment of a conditional knock-out in the mouse gonad (Dmxl2 total KO is lethal at birth). In males, a 60% decrease in sperm production was observed at puberty during the first wave of spermatogenesis.Regarding the second point, the study of a putative regulatory region of FOXL2 expression allowed to define highly conserved elements harbouring typical enhancer epigenetic profile. Then, I established an in vitro model of FOXL2 locus “epigenome editing”, using the CRISPR/dCas9-p300 technology to modify the epigenetic mark H3K27ac. In the long term, this work may lead to the development of "epigenetic drugs" to support the expression of FOXL2 and restore the fertility of patients with a mutation of this gene.

Promoter-enhancer interactions are essential for gene regulating, Capture Hi-C is a chromosome conformation capture method to map promoter-enhancer interactions at high resolution. We have Capture Hi-C data forGM12878 cells, immortalized primary B lymphocytes, in three replicates. Although Capture Hi-C maps enhancer elements together with the promoters they regulate, the overlap between enhancer datasets produced by other methods such as ChIP-seq and Capture Hi-C is lower than expected. In order to understand the reasons for lower overlap, we investigated the enhancer potential of replicated and non-replicated Capture Hi-C interactors, as well as enhancer overlapping and non-overlapping Capture Hi-C interactors. We performed a systematic comparison between our interactor and experimental regulatory and transcriptomic datasets to determine the extent of enhancer mapping. The results show replicated interactors have higher enhancer potential than non-replicated ones. However, there is evidence that interactors not overlapping with experimental validated regulatory datasets can also potentially be true enhancers.

The oral route of administration remains the preferred route of administrating drugs due to patient acceptance and compliance. Therapeutic proteins are currently mainly administered by means of the parenteral route because of its low intestinal epithelial permeation capability. The major challenges for oral delivery of proteins and peptides are pre-systemic enzymatic degradation and poor penetration of the intestinal mucosa. The latter can be overcome by including safe and effective absorption enhancers in dosage forms. Aloe vera, Aloe ferox and Aloe marlothii gel materials as well as N-trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC) were shown to be capable of increasing peptide drug transport across in vitro models such as Caco-2 cell monolayers. The purpose of this study is to investigate binary combinations of chemical drug absorption enhancers and to determine if synergistic drug absorption enhancement effects exist. A. vera, A. ferox and A. marlothii leaf gel materials as well as with N-trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC) were combined in different ratios and their effects on the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) as well as the transport of FITC-dextran across Caco-2 cell monolayers were measured. The isobole method was applied to determine the type of interaction that exists between the absorption enhancers combinations. The TEER results showed synergism existed for the combinations between A. vera and A. marlothii, A. marlothii and A. ferox as well as A. vera and TMC. Antagonism interactions also occurred and can probably be explained by chemical reactions between the chemical permeation enhancers such as complex formation. In terms of FITC-dextran transport, synergism was found for combinations between A. vera and A. marlothii, A. marlothii and A. ferox, A. vera and TMC, A. ferox and TMC and A. marlothii and TMC, whereas antagonism was observed for A. vera and A. ferox. The combinations where synergism was obtained have the potential to be used as effective drug absorption enhancers at lower concentrations compared to single components. / MSc (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015