In our environment there are many compounds which can negatively influence humans and wildlife. Every day, a vast number of environmental pollutants are released into our environment and there is no way to avoid their exposure. Some of these compounds can even mimic endogenous hormones and interfere with our endocrine system (so called endocrine disruptors), which is the key regulatory system controlling almost all physiological processes in human and animal bodies. Also the reproductive system is largely regulated by various hormones, and their proper function is crucial for gamete formation, fertilization and embryo development. Environmental pollutants are therefore considered as one of the possible causes of increased infertility in human population. This prompted us to study the effect of two endocrine disruptors (tetrabromobisphenol A - TBBPA, and zearalenone - ZEA) on the male mouse reproductive system in vivo. According to our results, TBBPA is able to induce apoptosis as well as changes in the expression of selected testicular genes and sperm protamination. Our results also suggest that permanent exposure to TBBPA slightly enhances its effect in the next generation, depending on whether the parents have been affected or not. We hypothesized that differential protamination of the sperm DNA...

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia and the sixth leading cause of death in the United States, with no therapeutic option to slow or halt disease progression. Development of two characteristic pathologic lesions, amyloid beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, in the brain are associated with synaptic dysfunction and neuron loss leading to memory impairment and cognitive decline. Although mutations in genes involved in amyloid beta processing are linked to increased plaque formation in the inherited familial form of AD, the more common idiopathic form, termed sporadic AD, develops in the absence of gene mutations. In contrast, alterations in gene expression and transcription occur in plaque and tangle susceptible brain regions of sporadic AD subjects, even in the earliest stages of development of pathologic burden, and may give insight into the pathogenesis of AD. Epigenetic modifications to cytosine are known to alter transcriptional states and gene expression in embryonic development as well as in cancer studies. With the discovery of enzymatically oxidized derivatives of 5-methylcytosine (5-mC), the most common epigenetic cytosine modification, a probable demethylation pathway has been suggested to alter transcriptional states of DNA. The most abundant 5-mC derivative, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC), while expressed at low concentrations throughout the body, is expressed at high concentrations in brain cells. To determine the role cytosine modifications play in AD, this study was directed at the quantification of epigenetic modifications to cytosine in several stages of AD progression using global, genome-wide, and gene-specific studies. To determine global levels of each cytosine derivative in brain regions relevant to AD progression, a gas chromatography/mass spectrometry quantitative analysis was utilized to analyze cytosine, 5-mC, and 5-hmC in tissue specimens from multiple brain regions of AD subjects, including early and late stages of AD progression. To determine the genome-wide impact of 5-hmC on biologically relevant pathways in AD, a single-base resolution sequencing analysis was used to map hydroxymethylation throughout the hippocampus of late stage AD subjects. Finally, to determine gene-specific levels of cytosine, 5-mC, and 5-hmC, a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) protocol was paired with specific restriction enzyme digestion to analyze target sequences within exons of genes related to sporadic AD. Results from these studies show epigenetic modifications to cytosine are altered on the global, genome-wide, and gene-specific levels in AD subjects compared to normal aging, particularly in early stages of AD progression, suggesting alterations to the epigenetic landscape may play a role in the dysregulation of transcription and the pathogenesis of AD.

Les rétrovirus endogènes sont des parasites génétiques qui s’insèrent dans l’ADN génomique. Bien que leurs insertions délétères soient éliminées par la sélection naturelle, ils prolifèrent et sont une source de plasticité génomique. L’étude de l’impact de leur mobilité sur le génome hôte est rendue difficile par le faible taux de transposition de ces éléments, réprimés par des petits ARN appelés piARNs. Nous avons développé une approche génétique permettant d’inactiver ce contrôle et de déterminer l’impact sur le génome de la drosophile, d’une transposition réplicative. Nous avons remarqué la mise en place d’autres mécanismes de répression des rétrovirus endogènes lors de la perte des piARNs pouvant ainsi limiter leur propagation. Nous avons aussi identifié de nouveaux sites d’intégrations des rétrovirus endogènes après un cycle de transposition réplicative. Cependant, le taux de transposition reste faible. Ce projet combinant différentes approches (génétique, séquençage à haut débit et bioinformatique) a permis de démontrer que la voie des piARNs n’est pas cruciale pour le maintien de l’intégrité du génome, et que d’autres mécanismes semblent intervenir afin de maintenir sa stabilité. / Endogenous retrovirsuses are genetic parasites which are inserted in the genomic DNA. Although their deleterious insertions are eliminated by natural selection, they proliferate and are a source of genomic plasticity. The study of the impact of their mobility on the host genome is made difficult by the transposition’s low rate of these elements, suppressed by a class of small RNA, called piRNA. We have developed a genetic approach to inactivate this control and determine the impact on Drosophila’s genome, after one replicative transposition. We noticed the establishment of other endogenous retroviruses repression mechanisms that are awakened after the loss of the piRNA and they are able to limit their spread. We identified new integrations sites of endogenous retrovirus after one replicative transposition. But we noticed that the transposition rate still low. This project combines different approaches (genetics, high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics) and show the piRNA pathway is not essential to maintain genome integrity but other mechanisms involving small RNA can be implicated in the genome stability.

Les Tumeurs NeuroEndocrines Pancréatiques (TNEPs), qui se développent à partir des cellules endocrines des îlots de Langerhans, sont des tumeurs de caractéristiques diverses, sur le point hormonal, fonctionnel ou encore moléculaire. Leur diversité complexifie les diagnostics et les traitements pour les patients atteints. Depuis quelques années, la plasticité cellulaire du pancréas endocrine commence à être bien documentée dans des pathologies comme le diabète et les TNEPs. Les facteurs de croissance de la famille TGF-beta, connus pour leur rôle en cancérologie, sont impliqués dans le contrôle de l'expression des marqueurs d'identité des cellules beta. Mes travaux de thèse ont consisté à étudier la place de la plasticité cellulaire dans le développement d'insulinomes et d'identifier un facteur TGF-beta, impliqué dans ce processus. J'ai ainsi démontré un mécanisme de dédifférenciation des cellules beta tumorales, invalidées pour le gène Men1 chez la souris. De plus, j'ai identifié un ligand de la famille TGF-beta, l'ActivinB, surexprimé dans les insulinomes et responsable de la plasticité cellulaire. Des études complémentaires sur le modèle murin RipTag2, développant également des insulinomes, combinées à des analyses in cellulo, m'ont enfin permis de montrer le rôle de Menin dans l'expression de ce ligand, grâce à la régulation épigénétique, notamment les modifications d'histones. Mes travaux ont ainsi permis de mettre en évidence l'ActivinB comme un nouvel acteur dans la plasticité des cellules beta endocrines, tumorales ou non. La détection d'ActivinB pourra être utilisée à des fins diagnostiques/pronostiques chez des patients atteints de TNEPs. Enfin, mes travaux démontrent que la diversité des TNEPs ne se restreint pas seulement à leurs caractéristiques hormonales, leur fonctionnalité ou leur capacité de prolifération, mais qu'elle est également due à leur origine cellulaire et les mécanismes de tumorigenèse, qui se mettent en place. Ainsi, une caractérisation moléculaire approfondie de ces tumeurs chez l'homme semble désormais essentielle pour affiner la classification, le diagnostic et enfin les thérapies pour les patients atteints des TNEPs / Pancreatic NeuroEndocrine Tumors (PNETs), which develop from endocrine cells in Langerhans islets, present a wide array of hormonal, functional or molecular characteristics. Their diversity complicates the diagnosis and the treatment of affected patients. In recent years, the cellular plasticity of the endocrine pancreas begins to be well documented in pathologies like diabetes or PNETs. Growth factors of TGF-beta family, known for their role in cancer, are involved in the control of beta cell identity marker expression. My PhD work was aiming at studying the role of cell plasticity in insulinoma development and identifying the potent contribution of a subset of members of the TGF-beta superfamily in this mechanism. Using mice model, I proved a mechanism of dedifferentiation in tumor endocrine beta cells, invalidated for Men1 gene. Moreover, I identified a TGF beta member, ActivinB, to be overexpressed in insulinomas and responsible of cellular plasticity. Using a combination of studies based on the RipTag2 mice, that also develop insulinomas, and in cellulo analyses, I further highlighted the role of Menin in the controlled-expression of ActivinB through an epigenetic mechanism, involving histone mark modifications. Therefore, my thesis works permitted to demonstrate that ActivinB represents a novel actor of endocrine beta cell plasticity. More importantly it highlights the possible use of ActivinB for diagnostic/prognostic purposes for PNETs patients. Finally, my work demonstrates that PNETs diversity is not only restricted to hormonal, functional or proliferative features, but shows that both the cell origin and mechanisms of tumorigenesis may actively contribute to the observed tumor heterogeneity. Thus, further molecular and cellular characterization of PNETs appears essential to refine the classification, diagnosis and therapeutics for patients

Les modifications épigénétiques participent au contrôle de l'expression génique. Il a été montré que la méthylation des désoxycytidines (dC) de l'ADN joue un rôle clé dans la régulation épigénétique chez les mammifères. Cette modification correspond à la marque épigénétique la plus stable. Elle a lieu sur des résidus CpG regroupés en ilôts, essentiellement situés au niveau des séquences promotrices, des séquences répétées et des séquences encadrants les ilôtsCpG. L'hyperméthylation des promoteurs induit une inhibition de l'expression des gènes, tandis qu'une hypométhylation est associée à une expression. Les enzymes responsables de la méthylation de l'ADN sont les méthyltransférases d'ADN (DNMTs). Deux familles de DNMTscatalytiquement actives ont été identifiées: on distingue la DNMT1, principalement responsable de la maintenance de la méthylation de l'ADN lors de la réplication, et les DNMT3A et 3B, qui sont responsables d'une méthylation de l'ADN dite de novo. L'altération des profils de méthylation de l'ADN conduit à diverses maladies telles que le cancer. Les cellules cancéreuses présentent souvent un profil de méthylation de l'ADN différent des cellules saines, on observe en particulier une hyperméthylation spécifique des gènes dits suppresseurs de tumeur. Une restauration de leur expression par l'inhibition de la méthylation de l'ADN représente ainsi une stratégie thérapeutique attrayante. Plusieurs inhibiteurs de DNMTs ont été décrits et deux analogues de nucléosides sont approuvés par la FDA pour traiter certaines leucémies: la 5-azacytidine (VidazaTM) et la 5-azadeoxycytidine (Dacogene(r)). Notre laboratoire développe depuis plusieurs années de nouveaux inhibiteurs non nucléosidiques de DNMTs qui ciblent leur site catalytique. J'ai étudié ici les effets pharmacologiques de ces inhibiteurs catalytiques des DNMTs, en utilisant plusieurs lignées cellulaires cancéreuses (issues d'une leucémie, d'un lymphome et d'un cancer du côlon). J'ai utilisé pour cela différentes technologies permettant d'analyser la méthylation de l'ADN, l'accessibilité de la chromatine, les modifications des histones et l'expression des gènes. Ces nouvelles thérapies épigénétiques visent à la reprogrammation des cellules cancéreuses, c'est pourquoi j'ai exploré les modifications à long terme induites par ces nouveaux composés. Nous avons montré que ces composés sont des inhibiteurs puissants de DNMT3A et qu'ils sont capables d'induire l'expression d'un gène raporteur (la luciférase) sous le contrôle du promoteur CMV, par une déméthylation de ce promoteur et une ouverture de la chromatine. Enfin, ces nouveaux inhibiteurs de DNMTs déméthylent la région promotrice de gènes suppresseurs de tumeurs et induisent leur ré-expression. / Epigenetic modifications participate to the control of gene expression. Methylation of deoxycytidines (dC) in the DNA was shown to play a key role in epigenetic regulation in mammals. It is the most stable epigenetic mark and occurs at CpG sites, which are grouped in islands and essentially located in promoters, repeated sequences and CpG island shores. Hypermethylation of promoters induces gene silencing while hypomethylation is associated to gene expression. Enzymes responsible for DNA methylation are the DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). Two families of catalyticallyactive DNMTs have been identified: DNMT1, mainly responsible for DNA methylation maintenance during replication; and DNMT3A and 3B that perform de novo DNA methylation and support maintenance. Alteration of DNA methylation patterns lead to various diseases such as cancer. Cancerous cells often present aberrant DNA methylation, in particular a specific hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes is observed. Restoring their expression by inhibition of DNA methylation represents an attractive therapeutic strategy. Several DNMTs inhibitors have been described. Two nucleoside analogs are FDA approved to treat leukemia: 5-azacytidine (VidazaTM) and 5-azadeoxycytidine (Dacogene(r)). Our laboratory develops since several years new inhibitors of DNMT, non-nucleoside analogs, targeting the catalytic site. Here, I studied the pharmacological effects of these DNMTs catalytic inhibitors using several cancer cell lines (leukemia, lymphoma and colon cancer) and different technologies to follow DNA methylation, chromatin accessibility, histone modifications and gene expression. Since epigenetic therapies aim at the reprogramming of cancer cells, I explored the long-term modifications induced by the compounds. We show that these novel compounds are potent inhibitors of DNMT3A and able to induce the expression of a reporter gene (luciferase) under the control of a methylated CMV promoter by demethylation of the promoter and opening of the chromatin. Finally, these new DNMTs inhibitors demethylate the promoter region of tumor suppressor genes and induce their re-expression.

L'ARNr 5S est une partie intégrante du ribosome indispensable pour la synthèse des protéines. Cette fonction essentielle nécessite une régulation fine de l'expression des ARNr 5S en fonction des exigences cellulaires. L'ARNr 5S est codé par des gènes organisés en répétitions en tandem principalement situés dans les régions péricentromériques des chromosomes 3, 4 et 5 dans le génome Col-0 d'Arabidopsis thaliana. L’étude approfondie de l’organisation, la dynamique et la régulation épigénétique des gènes d’ARNr 5S reste cependant difficile du fait de l’absence d’assemblage de ces régions hautement répétées dans la séquence du génome d’Arabidopsis disponible dans TAIR10.Dans cette thèse, nous apportons de nouvelles informations sur les gènes d'ARNr 5S chez Arabidopsis. Nous avons confirmé les signatures d'ADN spécifiques par séquençage haut débit, identifié des polymorphismes spécifiques des régions chromosomiques portant des ADNr 5S et ainsi défini de nouvelles séquences de référence. Nous avons également étudié le statut épigénétique des gènes ARNr 5S, montrant que ces gènes sont globalement enrichis en marques répressives. Les loci situés sur les chromosomes 4 et 5 présentent également des modifications post-traductionnelles d’histones et des variants d’histone particuliers et caractéristiques d’une activité de transcription. Nous avons aussi montré que les loci d'ADNr 5S sont très dynamiques au sein de l'espèce Arabidopsis avec des variations entre différent écotypes du nombre de copies de gènes d’ARNr 5S et de l’importance relative de chaque cluster. En utilisant l'écotype Ler et des mutants spécifiques, nous montrons que le locus du chromosome 5 est une source majeure de réarrangements chromosomiques qui affectent l'organisation de la chromatine dans le noyau. Enfin, nous suggérons que des variations de l’état chromatinien des gènes d'ARNr 5S peuvent conduire à une différence de transcription dans les différents écotypes.Cette étude permet d’établir un rôle de l'organisation de la chromatine dans la régulation transcriptionnelle et l'organisation des gènes d'ARNr 5S. / 5S rRNA is an integral component of the ribosome and is essential for protein synthesis. 5S rRNA expression is therefore tightly regulated to suit the cellular requirements. 5S rRNA is encoded by gene arrays organized in tandem repeats mainly situated in the pericentromeric regions of chromosomes 3, 4 and 5 in the Arabidopsis thaliana Col-0 genome. Full genome assembly remains challenging in these highly repeated regions and impedes further investigation of their organization, dynamics and epigenetic regulation.In this thesis, we provide information on 5S rRNA genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. We confirmed specific DNA signatures by deep sequencing and define chromosome-specific polymorphisms and new reference sequences. We also studied the epigenetic status of the 5S rRNA genes showing that these genes are enriched in repressive marks whereas the loci on chromosome 4 and 5 also display peculiar histone modifications and variants characteristic of transcriptional activity. We report that 5S rDNA loci are highly dynamic within the Arabidopsis species with high level of variation in global copy number and cluster proportion between ecotypes. Using the Ler ecotype, in which reorganization events were recorded, and specific mutant backgrounds, we identified chromosome 5 rDNA locus as a major source of variation and observed altered chromatin organization in nuclear space as a consequence of 5S rDNA locus variation. Finally, we suggest that differences in chromatin states at the two main 5S rDNA loci can lead to differential usage of 5S rRNA genes indifferent ecotypes.The analysis provides evidence for a role of chromatin organization in transcriptional regulation and 5S rDNA organization.

L’homéostasie des tissus et la formation d’organes fonctionnels au cours du développement mettent en jeu un équilibre entre prolifération, croissance, mort et différenciation des cellules. Cycline G de D. melanogaster est une protéine impliquée dans plusieurs de ces processus de maintien de l’homéostasie tissulaire. Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai montré que Cycline G est impliquée dans le maintien épigénétique des identités cellulaires au cours du développement. En effet, CycG interagit avec des gènes codant des facteurs chromatiniens des groupes Polycomb (PcG) et Trithorax (TrxG), impliqués respectivement dans le maintien d’un état réprimé ou activé des gènes au cours des divisions cellulaires. Ces interactions corrèlent avec une modification du profil d'expression des gènes homéotiques Scr et Ubx, qui suggère un rôle de Cycline G dans la répression de ces gènes. Je me suis également intéressée au rôle de CycG dans la stabilité du développement (SD), qui participe au maintien de l’homéostasie en contrôlant les variations stochastiques des processus développementaux. En effet, la surexpression de CycG induit une asymétrie visible de la taille des ailes des mouches, indiquant que la SD est altérée. L’étude des bases génétiques de ce processus par une analyse de gènes candidats suggère que des gènes PcG et trxG jouent un rôle dans la SD. Par ailleurs, l’asymétrie induite par CycG est aggravée par des mutations des effecteurs de la compétition cellulaire, un mécanisme via lequel des cellules entraînent l’apoptose de cellules voisines de moindre capacité proliférative. Ces résultats soulèvent l’intéressante possibilité d’une implication de la compétition cellulaire dans la SD. / Tissue homeostasis and formation of functional organs during development require a precise balance between proliferation, growth, cell death and differentiation. Drosophila Cyclin G is involved in several of these processes. During my PhD, I showed that Cyclin G is implicated in epigenetic maintenance of cell identities during development. Indeed CycG interacts with genes of the Polycomb (PcG) and trithorax (trxG) groups that encode chromatin factors involved in the maintenance through cell divisions of repressed or active transcriptional state of genes, respectively. These interactions correlate with a change of the homeotic genes Scr and Ubx expression profile, suggesting a role for Cyclin G in the repression of these genes. I also addressed the role of CycG in developmental stability that participates in tissue homeostasis by buffering stochastic variations of developmental processes, also known as developmental noise. CycG overexpression induces a visible asymmetry of wing size, indicating that developmental stability is impaired. Genetic and cellular bases of this process are poorly understood. The results of a gene candidate approach suggest that PcG and trxG genes contribute to developmental stability. Besides, CycG-induced asymmetry is increased by mutating effectors of cell competition, a phenomenon through which cells induce apoptosis of less fit neighbour cells. These observations raise the question of a role for cell competition in developmental stability.

Des études moléculaires et génétiques ont montré qu'une empreinte épigénétique, située au niveau du locus sexuel (mat1) de la levure Schizosaccharomyces pombe, initie le changement de type sexuel. La réplication unidirectionnelle du locus mat1 permet la formation de l'empreinte sur le brin Watson. Les éléments moléculaires qui forment et protègent l'empreinte durant le cycle cellulaire restent peu connus. Afin de mieux comprendre le mécanisme de formation et de maintien de l'empreinte, j'ai caractérisé le recrutement au niveau du locus mat1 d'acteurs précoces dans le changement de type sexuel. J'ai montré que la protéine Sap1 (switch activating protein 1) est préférentiellement recrutée à l'intérieur de la séquence SS13, une séquence qui stabilise l'empreinte. Les protéines Lsd1/2 (lysine specific demethylases) qui contrôlent la pause de la fourche de réplication à mat1 et la formation de l'empreinte sont spécialement recrutées au niveau de mat1 indépendamment de l'allèle présent. La protéine Abp1 (homologue de CENP-B) est enrichie à côté de mat1 mais n'est pas impliquée dans la formation/maintien de l'empreinte. De plus, j'ai établi la signature de l'empreinte par séquençage à haut débit. En utilisant cette signature, j'ai mis en évidence que les protéines Lsd1/2 et Sap1 immunoprécipitent les deux côtés de la chromatide qui porte l'empreinte ce qui suggère la formation d'une structure protective définie comme l'imprintosome. / Genetic and molecular studies have indicated that an epigenetic imprint at mat1, the sexual locus of fission yeast, initiates mating type switching. The polar DNA replication of mat1 generates an imprint on the Watson strand. The process by which the imprint is formed and maintained through the cell cycle remains unclear. To understand better the mechanism of imprint formation and stability, we characterized the recruitment of early players of mating type switch at the mat1 region. We found that the switching activating protein 1 (Sap1) is preferentially recruited inside the mat1M allele on a sequence (SS13) that enhances the imprint. The lysine specific demethylases, Lsd1/2, that control the replication fork pause at MPS1 and the formation of the imprint are specifically drafted inside of mat1, regardless of the allele. The CENP-B homolog, Abp1, is highly enriched next to mat1 but it is not required in the process. Additionally, we established the computational signature of the imprint. Using this signature, we show that both sides of the imprinted molecule are bound by Lsd1/2 and Sap1, suggesting a nucleoprotein protective structure defined as imprintosome.

The human GI tract has evolved to simultaneously absorb nutrients and be the frontline in host defence. These seemingly mutually exclusive goals are achieved by a single cell thick epithelial barrier, and a complex resident immune system which lives in symbiosis with the intestinal microflora and is also able to rapidly respond to invading pathogens. An immunological balance is therefore required to permit tolerance to the normal intestinal microflora, but also prevent the dissemination of pathogenic micro-organisms to the rest of the host. Inappropriate immune responses in genetically susceptible individuals are the hallmark of human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and are thus targeting effector immune cells and their cytokines remains the mainstay of treatment. However despite vigorous efforts to delineate the genetic contribution to IBD disease susceptibility using large multinational cohorts, the majority of disease heritability remains unknown. Epigenetics describes heritable changes in chromatin that are not conferred by DNA sequence. These incorporate changes to histones, chromatin structure and DNA methylation, which confer changes to gene transcription and thus gene expression and cellular function. Methylbinding proteins (MBD) have the ability to bind to methylated DNA and recruit large chromatin remodeling complexes that underpin a variety of epigenetic modifications. Methyl- CpG-binding domain protein 2 (MBD2) is one such MBD that is required for appropriate innate (dendritic cell) and adaptive (T cell) immune function, though its role has not been investigated in the GI tract. We hypothesized that alterations in chromatin are central to the reprogramming of normal gene expression that occurs in disease states. By defining the phenotype of immune cells in the absence of MBDs we hope to understand the mechanisms of chromatin-dysregulation that lead to immune-mediated diseases such as IBD. We therefore aimed to assess the role of MBD2 in colon immune cells in the steady state and in murine models of GI tract inflammation, thereafter identifying the culprit cell types and genes responsible for any observed changes. We envisaged that investigating heritable, epigenetic changes in gene expression that are inherently more amenable to environmental manipulation than our DNA code, may provide novel insight to a poorly understood mechanism of disease predisposition. In addition identifying the cellular and gene targets of Mbd2 mediated changes to immune homeostasis that may provide exciting and novel approaches to therapeutic modulation of pathological inflammatory responses. In chapter 3 we assessed the expression of Mbd2/MBD2 in the murine/human GI tract. Consistent with existing mouse data, levels of Mbd2 mRNA increased between anatomical divisions of small (duodenum, ileum, terminal ileum) and large intestine (caecum, colon, rectum). In addition MBD2 mRNA was greater in the rectum versus ileum, with active IBD associated with lower rectal MBD2 mRNA compared to quiescent IBD controls. Thus we sought to understand the role of Mbd2 in the colon, where mRNA levels were the highest in the GI tract and where appropriate immune function is central to prevent damaging inflammation. To address these aims required the development of existing methods of cell surface marker expression analysis using flow cytometry techniques to simultaneously identify multiple innate and adaptive immune populations. Using naïve Mbd2 deficient mice (Mbd2-/-) we observed CD11b+ CD103+ DCs were significantly reduced in number in Mbd2 deficiency. To understand the role of Mbd2 in colonic inflammation we employed a mouse model of chemical (DSS) and infectious (T. gondii) colitis comparing Mbd2-/- and littermate controls (WT). Mbd2-/- were extremely sensitive to DSS and T. gondii mediated colonic inflammation, characterized by increased symptom score, weight loss and histological score of tissue inflammation (DSS) and increased antibody specific cytokine responses (T. gondii) in Mbd2 deficient animals. Flow cytometry analysis of colon LP cells in both infectious and chemical colitis revealed significant accumulation of monocytes and neutrophils in Mbd2-/-. Indeed monocytes and neutrophils were the principal myeloid sources of IL-1b and TNF in DSS colitis and the number of IL-1b/TNF+ monocytes/neutrophils was significantly greater in Mbd2-/-. Lastly we employed our colon LP isolation techniques to analyse immune populations in active and quiescent IBD and healthy controls, using endoscopically acquired biopsy samples. Analysis revealed that as in murine colitis, active human IBD is characterized by the accumulation of CD14High monocyte-like cells, with an associated increased ratio of macrophage:monocyte-like cells. In Chapter 4 we sought to understand the cellular sources of Mbd2 that may explain the predisposition of Mbd2-/- to colitis. Firstly we restricted Mbd2 deficiency to haematopoietic cells using grafting Mbd2-/- bone marrow (BM) into lethally irradiated WT mice. These animals treated with DSS displayed increased weight loss, symptom score, neutrophil accumulation and histopathology score compared to mice irradiated and grafted with WT BM. Given the accumulation of monocytes in Mbd2-/- DSS treated mice, and existing literature supporting a pathogenic role in this model, we then investigated the role of Mbd2 in monocyte function. Colon monocytes sorted from Mbd2-/- and WT DSS treated mice displayed similar expression for many pro-inflammatory genes (Il6, Il1a, Il1b, Tnf), but demonstrated significantly dysregulated expression for some others (Regb, Lyz1, Ido1, C4a). To investigate this in a more refined model, we lethally irradiated WT mice and repopulated them with a WT:Mbd2-/- BM mix. This enabled the analysis of WT and Mbd2-/- haematopoietic cells in the same animal. Colon WT and Mbd2-/- monocyte recruitment and cytokine production in DSS treated mixed BM chimeras was equivalent between genotypes suggesting that Mbd2 deficiency in monocytes alone did not explain the increased susceptibility of Mbd2-/- to DSS colitis. We then restricted Mbd2 deficiency to CD11c expressing cells, given the known role for Mbd2 in their function, and for CD11c+ cells in DSS, using a CD11cCreMbd2Fl/Fl system. DSS treated mice with Mbd2 deficient CD11c+ cells demonstrated increased weight loss, symptoms score, histolopathology score, monocyte and neutrophil colon accumulation compared to controls. To further explore the role of Mbd2 in colon CD11c+ cells, macrophage and DCs from DSS treated WT and Mbd2-/- mice were purified and their gene expression analysed. Mbd2-/- versus WT macrophages demonstrated significantly altered expression of both pro- (Il1a, C6, Ido1, Trem2) and antiinflammatory (Tgfbi, Retnla) pathways that we hypothesized was a method for attempted host control of excessive colon damage in Mbd2-/- mice. DC gene expression analysis was hampered by small sample size, but demonstrated a large number of small expression changes, including IL-12/IL-23 (Jak2) and autophagy (Lrrk2) pathways. Lastly levels of costimualtory molecules (CD40/CD80) were increased in Mbd2-/- but not CD11cΔMbd2 colon LP DCs/macrophages suggesting that non-CD11c+ cellular sources of Mbd2 were required to produce increased activation phenotype in these cells. Finally in Chapter 5 we explored the role for Mbd2 in non-haematopoietic cells, namely the colonic epithelium. Here we first developed a novel method for identifying and purifying these cells using flow cytometry. Mbd2 deficient colonic epithelium demonstrated increased expression of activation markers MHC II and LY6A/E in the steady state and in DSS / T. muris mediated colonic inflammation. Indeed FACS purified colon epithelial cells from naive and DSS treated, Mbd2-/- and WT mice revealed conserved dysregulated gene expression independent of inflammation: Both naïve and inflamed Mbd2 deficient epithelium displayed significantly increased expression of genes responsible for antigen processing/presentation (MHC I, MHC II, immunoproteasome) and decreased expression of genes involved in cell-cell adhesion (Cldn1, Cldn4). Lastly we investigated whether the observed differences in Mbd2-/- cell types conferred alterations in the makeup of the intestinal microflora. Interestingly independent of co-housing of Mbd2-/- and WT animals, Mbd2 deficiency consistently predicted the microbial composition, with increased levels of Clostridales and decreased levels of Parabacteroides bacteria. Collectively we have identified CD11c+ cells, monocytes and colon epithelial cells as key cell types for Mbd2 mediated changes in gene expression that affect mucosal immune responses. These data thus identify Mbd2 gene targets within these cell types as exciting new areas for investigation and therapeutic modulation to limit damaging GI tract inflammation.

Paediatric high grade glioma (HGG), including diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) are highly aggressive tumours with no effective cures. Lack of understanding of the molecular biology of these tumours, in part due to lack of well-characterised pre-clinical models, is a great challenge in the development of novel therapies. Analysis of paired cell culture/biopsy samples in this study revealed that paediatric HGG short-term cell cultures retain many of the tumour characteristics in vivo. Using a genome-wide approach, copy number, gene and miRNA expression, and methylation changes were characterised in 17 paediatric HGG-derived short-term cell cultures including 3 from DIPG. The majority of the genomic changes were unique from those arising in adult HGG. Approximately 65% (11/17) of paediatric HGG short-term cell cultures had balanced genetic profiles resembling normal karyotypes. The most frequent copy number gain and loss were detected at 14q11.2 (94%) and 8p11.23-p11.22 (59%), respectively. H3F3A (K27M) mutation was present in 2/17 (12%) cases and concurrent loss of CDKN2A and BRAFV600E in 1/17 (6%) case. Genes involved in reelin/PI3K signaling (DAB1), RTK signaling (PTPRE), and arginine biosynthesis (ASS1 and ASL) were frequently deregulated by methylation in these tumours. The anti-growth and anti-migratory properties of DAB1 and PTPRE were demonstrated in vitro. Preliminary investigations validated the therapeutic potential of ADI-PEG20 (arginine depletion), and PI-103 (PI3K/mTOR inhibition) in a subset of paediatric HGG short-term cell cultures. This study has identified novel genetic and epigenetic changes in paediatric HGG that may, following further validation, be translated into potential biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets.