Relevant methods for estimating reference crop evaporation and crop evaporation for selected, pertinent crops growing in the semiarid environments of Arizona and New Mexico are investigated. Daily evaporation estimates over the period 2000-2010 are calculated using standard meteorological data from 35 weather stations. Compared to the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith reference evapotranspiration estimate, the Hargreaves and Priestley-Taylor equations overestimate by 5-15% while the temperature-based Blaney-Criddle method currently used in New Mexico underestimates by 8-13%, on average, the discrepancy being most severe in highly advective regions. Crop evaporation estimates are compared to the one-step Matt-Shuttleworth approach. The Blaney-Criddle method systematically underestimates crop evaporation by 7-30%, while underestimation using the climatically adjusted FAO-56 crop coefficient approach is 1-8% for short crops but ~20% for tall pecan and citrus orchards grown at atmospherically arid locations. Crop surface resistances derived using the Matt-Shuttleworth approach at Fabian Garcia in southern New Mexico compare favorably to literature values.

The Hasbani and Orontes Rivers are two main transboundary rivers of Lebanon. These waters are a critical resource for the future water security of the co-riparians. This dissertation analyses results of a water resources planning and hydrologic model under a new participatory framework by studying hydro-political aspects and the vulnerability of water resources in the Hasbani basin of Lebanon and the city of Amman under a changing climate pattern and growing water demands. Water policies suggested by the stakeholders were analyzed and the most sustainable solution was presented to the water resources authorities in the basins. Moreover, because of the political situation in the region, field data such as rainfall and evapotranspiration are very difficult to obtain making the use of remote sensing and Geographic Information System very useful to present a complete description of the hydrology of the watersheds and study water availability in the Orontes and Jordan River Basins. The approach used in this research integrates recently compiled data derived from satellite imagery (evapotranspiration, rainfall, and digital elevation model) into a transboundary geospatial database and hydrologic model to measure the contribution of each riparian country to the total available water in the basin. Finally, a mathematical method called the Orontes water allocation optimization method is used based on the nine factors of the UN Convention on the Law of Non-navigational Use of International Water Courses to allocate water equitably between the co-riparians. The optimization results show that Turkey and Lebanon could benefit from additional water if new negotiations are initiated. Once a multilateral agreement occurs, the findings of this research would provide a useful guide to the co-riparians for policy formulation, decision making and dispute resolution. Cooperation between the riparian countries may be improved by building a GIS database that provides access to accurate data for hydrological analysis, facilitate and standardize data sharing to evaluate future policy alternatives.

The objectives of the thesis: • to analyse evapotranspiration of Norway spruce seedlings in irrigated and non-irrigated fields by applying lysimetric method; • to determine crop coefficient of spruce seedlings; • to measure dynamics of soil humidity during vegetation period; • to determine influence of irrigation regime on qualitative indices of spruce seedlings; • to determine optimal irrigation regime; • to set economic advantage of irrigation of Norway spruce seedlings. / Darbo uždaviniai: • ištirti paprastosios eglės sodinukų suminį išgaravimą drėkinamuose ir nedrėkinamuose plotuose lizimetriniu metodu; • nustatyti eglės sodinukų biologinius koeficientus; • įvertinti dirvožemio drėgmės dinamiką vegetacijos laikotarpiu; • nustatyti drėkinimo režimo įtaką eglės sodinukų kokybiniams rodikliams; • nustatyti optimalų drėkinimo režimą; • nustatyti paprastosios eglės sodinukų drėkinimo ekonominį efektyvumą.

Despite being the driest inhabited continent, Australia has one of the highest per capita water consumptions in the world. In addition, instead of having fit-for-purpose water supplies (using different qualities of water for different applications), highly treated drinking water is used for nearly all of Australia's urban water supply needs, including landscape irrigation. The water requirement of urban landscapes, particularly urban parklands, is of growing concern. The estimation of evapotranspiration (ET) and subsequently plant water requirements in urban vegetation needs to consider the heterogeneity of plants, soils, water, and climate characteristics. This research contributes to a broader effort to establish sustainable irrigation practices within the Adelaide Parklands in Adelaide, South Australia. In this paper, two practical ET estimation approaches are compared to a detailed Soil Water Balance (SWB) analysis over a one year period. One approach is the Water Use Classification of Landscape Plants (WUCOLS) method, which is based on expert opinion on the water needs of different classes of landscape plants. The other is a remote sensing approach based on the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensors on the Terra satellite. Both methods require knowledge of reference ET calculated from meteorological data. The SWB determined that plants consumed 1084 mmyr(-1) of water in ET with an additional 16% lost to drainage past the root zone, an amount sufficient to keep salts from accumulating in the root zone. ET by MODIS EVI was 1088 mmyr(-1), very close to the SWB estimate, while WUCOLS estimated the total water requirement at only 802 mmyr(-1), 26% lower than the SWB estimate and 37% lower than the amount actually added including the drainage fraction. Individual monthly ET by MODIS was not accurate, but these errors were cancelled out to give good agreement on an annual time step. We conclude that the MODIS EVI method can provide accurate estimates of urban water requirements in mixed landscapes large enough to be sampled by MODIS imagery with 250-m resolution such as parklands and golf courses.

Irrigation agriculture is the largest use of water (~80%) in the United States ('Irrigation and Water Use', 2016) A combination of irrigation and precipitation infiltrates through the Earth's subsurface and represents the primary inputs to an agricultural field's groundwater system. This water propagates down from the surface, with some of it recharging the underlying groundwater storage as return flow. The difference between the amount of irrigation water applied and the return flow to the aquifer, represents the consumptive use of the system. The alterations in the quality and distribution of water from groundwater pumping and irrigation places greater emphasis on the need to understand the connection between agricultural consumption and subsurface groundwater flux. Temperature fluctuations in the Earth's shallow subsurface are mainly governed by spatial and temporal variations in temperature at the ground surface (Hatch et al., 2006). These temperature signals at depth are primarily controlled by advection, dispersion, and thermal conduction. It has been shown for streambeds that when temperature propagates through the subsurface, it is a nonlinear function of fluid velocity, the frequency of the surface temperature variations, and the sediment and fluid thermal properties (Stallman, 1965). This information has been useful for understanding fluxes for saturated conditions such as in stream systems, but has not yet been applied to understand consumptive use in unsaturated conditions such as in agricultural systems. Temperature propagation in unsaturated conditions is different than saturated conditions due to changes in soil and thermal properties. Previous models have had difficulty estimating groundwater fluxes for some unsaturated conditions. This study experiments with the possibility of using a combination of MATLAB and HYDRUS 1D to infer unsaturated groundwater fluxes, saturated hydraulic conductivity, and saturated water content. One application of this type of flux estimation could be the inference of root water uptake and the consumptive use of an agricultural system. The method is designed to calculate root water uptake under steady-state conditions; and therefore might have limitations for quantifying consumptive use in field applications.It is beneficial to research the consumptive use in agricultural systems in order to gain understanding of the effects of irrigation on the total flux in groundwater storage. Other applications of consumptive use include: site specific farm efficiency and crop use parameters, nonpoint source pollution to estimate nutrient fluxes, irrigation efficiency, soil salinization, waste isolation, and slope stability.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Horticulture, Forestry, and Recreation Resources / Dale Bremer / Greg Davis / In 2005, turfgrass was estimated to cover approximately 20 million ha of urbanized land. That area is increasing with rapid urbanization, stressing the importance of water conservation in the lawn and landscape industry. Turfgrasses have been identified for replacement by presumably more water-efficient ornamental plant species to conserve water. However, research comparing drought resistance and evapotranspiration (ET) of turfgrasses with ornamental landscape plants is limited. Two studies were conducted to evaluate water use and performance under drought stress of several ornamental and turfgrass species. An online course was developed to educate students about critical water issues related to irrigation in urbanizing watersheds. In a field study, ET was measured using lysimeters and plant water status was evaluated under deficit irrigation (100%, 60%, and 20% ET) in Festuca arundinacea Schreb., Buchloe dactyloides (Nutt.) Engelm. ‘Sharps Improved’, and Ajuga reptans L. ‘Bronze Beauty’. Evapotranspiration was similar between A. reptans and F. arundinacea, and was 32 and 35% greater than ET of B. dactyloides. In a greenhouse study, the performance of one turfgrass (Poa pratensis L. ‘Apollo’) and eight landscape species (Achillea millifolium L., Ajuga reptans L. ‘Bronze Beauty’, Liriope muscari Decne., Pachysandra terminalis Siebold and Zucc., Sedum album L., Thymus serpyllum L., Vinca major L., and Vinca minor L.) was evaluated during a severe dry down and subsequent recovery. S. album, L. muscari, and P. terminalis performed the best, requiring 86 to 254 d to decline to a quality rating of one (1-9 scale: 1=dead/dormant, 9=best quality). The remaining species required 52 to 63 d. The only species to recover were P. pratensis [46% pot cover (PC) after 60 days], S. album (38% PC), and V. major (35% PC). A survey was developed to measure student learning as it relates to the level of sense and meaning present in the content of a new online course entitled “Water Issues in the Lawn and Landscape.” Survey results were compared with student learning as measured through a post-test. Post-test scores declined as the difference between sense and meaning increased (r =-0.82; P=0.03), indicating student learning is higher when both sense and meaning are present.

Ce travail a pour objectif l'adaptation en climat tropical d'une technique de phytoépuration utilisant le bambou pour le traitement des eaux usées, déjà développée en climat tempéré. L'étude porte sur la détermination de valeurs de référence pour plusieurs espèces de bambou tropicales (i) des capacités d'absorption d'eau, (ii) de production de biomasse aérienne, et (iii) d'absorption des nutriments. La démarche expérimentale a consisté, dans un premier temps, à déterminer la réponse morphologique de sept espèces de bambous, suite à l'apport excessif de nutriments, comme cela peut se produire lors de l'apport d'eaux usées. Dans un deuxième temps, les capacités d'évapotranspiration de cinq espèces de bambous ont été étudiées en cuves lysimètriques. Enfin, la production de biomasse, ainsi que les prélèvements en azote, phosphore et carbone d'un peuplement multispécifique ont été étudiés en réponse à l'apport de lisier, en conditions réelles d'une station pilote. Ces études ont montré que des apports excessifs en nutriments améliorent la croissance du bambou sans causer de stress détectable. Ils améliorent également la capacité photosynthétique des bambous, ainsi que la production de biomasse, qui est augmentée d'un facteur 2 à 6 selon les espèces, par rapport au traitement témoin. La production de biomasse importante, de l'ordre de 20,7 à 80 tonnes de matière sèche produite par hectare et par an, confère aux espèces étudiées des capacités d'extraction élevées, avec des exportations de 400 à 1600 kg.ha-1 en azote, 30 à 130 kg.ha-1 de phosphore et 18 à 67 t.ha-1 de carbone piégé dans la biomasse en deux ans. Les taux d'évapotranspiration des bambous sont plus élevés que ceux de cultures classiques, avec des valeurs moyennes annuelles comprises entre 4 et 7mm/j et des coefficients culturaux moyens de 2,1 à 3,8 selon les espèces. Cette étude a permis d'identifier plusieurs espèces de bambous intéressantes pour le traitement des eaux usées en climat tropical, notamment les espèces Bambusa oldhamii, Bambusa vulgaris et Gigantochloa wrayii. Dans une optique de phytoépuration ces résultats sont d'autant plus encourageants qu'ils ont été obtenus avec des plants de bambou n'ayant pas encore atteints leur pleine maturité. / The aim of this work was to adapt under tropical climate, a wastewater treatment phytotechnology which uses bamboo species, already developed under temperate climate. The objectives of the study were to establish reference values on the water and nutrient uptakes, and on above-ground biomass yields, for different tropical bamboo species. The experimental approach relied first in the quantification of the morphological response of seven bamboo species under high nutrient loads, up to 13.2 t.ha-1.yr-1 of NPK, as it occurs in wastewater treatment system. Second time, the evapotranspiration rates and crop coefficients of five bamboo species were determined using a lysimeter experiment. Finally, the biomass yield and the nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon uptakes were studied for a multi-specific bamboo plantation in response to pig slurry application, at field scale. The results have shown that the high nutrient load (13.2 t.ha-1.yr-1 of NPK) did not cause any detectable stress on the bamboo growth. On the contrary, the photosynthetic activity was improved and the growth rate was increased by 2 to 6 times compared with the control treatment. Depending on bamboo species, the annual biomass yield ranges from 20,7 to 80 t.ha-1.yr-1, and the nutrients storage into the biomass was 400 to 1600 kg.ha-1 for nitrogen, 30 to 130 kg.ha-1 for phosphorus and 18 to 67 t.ha-1 for carbon, in two years of experiment. The yearly average evapotranspiration rates were higher than for typical crops and range from 4 to 7mm.day-1, with average crop coefficients between 2.1 to 3.8, depending on species. Due to their high biomass yield, high nutrient uptakes and high evapotranspiration rates, some bamboo species, i.e. Bambusa oldhamii, Bambusa vulgaris and Gigantochloa wrayii appear as good candidates for wastewater treatment under tropical climate. These results are even more promising since they were obtained for non mature bamboo plants.

Cultivos de extensa área de produção e manejo intensivo, como a indústria canavieira, demandam maior responsabilidade em relação ao conhecimento da sua contribuição na diminuição ou aumento dos gases de efeito estufa. Dentro do manejo do sistema de produção de cana-de-açúcar existe uma etapa de renovação do canavial, período pós última colheita que antecipa a implantação de um novo cultivo de cana. O estudo tem por objetivo avaliar a contribuição do período de renovação de um canavial em relação aos fluxos de massa e energia dentro do sistema produtivo de cana-de-açúcar, considerando a inserção de um cultivo de soja após período de pousio sobre solo com cobertura de palha e sem cobertura, em um canavial localizado em Piracicaba - SP, Brasil. A obtenção dos fluxos foi realizada com o método \"Eddy Covariance\". Com o solo em pousio e cobertura de palha, o fluxo líquido de CO2 (NEE) médio foi de 2,51 µmolCO2 m-2 s-1 e evapotranspiração média do período de 0,72 mm d-1. O período de pousio com solo sem cobertura teve um NEE de 3,10 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 e evapotranspiração média do período de 2,04 mm d-1. Com a inserção de um cultivo de soja, a área passou a apresentar um comportamento de consumo no lugar da emissão de CO2, com um fluxo médio diário de NEE (da semeadura à maturação de colheita) de -1,47 µmolCO2 m-2 s-1 e evapotranspiração média de 4,52 mm d-1. Para o balanço energético da renovação do canavial, 84,6% da energia disponível no período de pousio sob os dois manejos de cobertura foi utilizada pelo fluxo de calor latente e fluxo de calor sensível, e para o cultivo de soja esta relação foi de 73,4%. Considerando o balanço da troca líquida de CO2 em relação às médias apresentadas, o saldo é positivo, ou seja, a renovação deste canavial foi responsável por maior emissão que consumo de CO2, de acordo com o manejo realizado. O cultivo da soja não compensou a emissão do período em pousio, mas tem potencial de amenizar no total do período. / Crops with extensive production areas and intensive management such as the sugar cane industry demand greater responsibility in relation to the knowledge of their contribution in the reduction or increase of greenhouse gases. Within the management of the sugar cane production system there is a stage of renewal of the cane field, a period after the last harvest that anticipates the implantation of a new sugarcane crop. The objective of this study is to evaluate the contribution of the renewal period of a sugarcane field in relation to the mass and energy flows within the sugarcane production system, considering the insertion of a soybean crop after fallow period on soil with cover of straw and without cover, in a field located in Piracicaba - SP, Brazil. Flows were obtained using the \"Eddy Covariance\" method. In the fallow soil with straw cover, the mean net CO2 flux (NEE) was of 2,51 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 and average evapotranspiration of the period was 0,72 mm day-1. The fallow period without cover had an mean NEE of 3,10 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 and average evapotranspiration of 2,04 mm day-1. With the insertion of a soybean crop, the area presented assimilation in place of CO2 emission, with a daily mean of NEE (from sowing to harvest maturation) of -1,47 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 and average evapotranspiration of 4,52 mm day-1. For the energy balance of the sugarcane renewal, 84,6% of the available energy in the fallow period under the two cover treatments was used by the latent heat flux and sensible heat flux. For soybean cultivation this relation was 73,4%. Considering the balance of the net CO2 exchange in relation to the averages presented, the balance is positive, that is, the renovation of this sugarcane field was responsible for higher emissions than CO2 assimilation, according to the management implemented. The soybean crop did not compensate for the fallow period, but it has the potential to reduce the total balance.

Os biocombustíveis, tais como biodiesel e etanol, vem sendo cada vez mais utilizados como substitutos dos derivados do petróleo. O estudo de culturas bioenergéticas tem se expandido no Brasil, sendo instituido no país um Programa Nacional de Produção e Uso do Biodiesel, visando sua produção a partir de culturas típicas da agricultura familiar brasileira, como, por exemplo, a mamona e a palma de óleo. A cultura da palma de óleo tem maior concentração na região Norte do Brasil, porém, estudos relacionados ao cultivo desta em outras regiões ainda são incipientes. Visando o cultivo desta planta na região sudeste, utilizando a irrigação localizada e disponibilizando nutrientes por meio de um efluente oriundo de outra planta bioenergética, a vinhaça da cana-de-açúcar, este experimento teve como objetivo a determinação da evapotranspiração de cultura da palma de óleo por lisimetria de pesagem, em sua fase jovem e, descrever os efeitos da vinhaça nas características biométricas, clorofila e nos teores de nutrientes foliares desta cultura. O estudo foi realizado em uma área experimental situada na Fazenda Areão da Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\", USP, em Piracicaba-SP. As mudas foram produzidas em casa de vegetação, sendo transplantadas a campo em outubro de 2015, tendo sido avaliadas de novembro de 2015 a março de 2017. O espaçamento utilizado foi o de 9 x 9 m disposto em triângulo equilátero, totalizando 143 plantas ha-1. Os tratamentos foram dispostos aleatorimente, com três blocos compostos por quatro repetições cada, sendo eles: T1 - irrigação com adubação química; T2 - 50% da dose de potássio (K) via fertirrigação com vinhaça e os outros 50% da dose de K fornecida com a adubação química; T3 - 75% da dose de K via fertirrigação com vinhaça e os outros 25% da dose de K via adubação química; T4 - 100% da dose de K via fertirrigação com vinhaça. O sistema de irrigação utilizado foi o gotejamento. A evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc) foi determinada por lisimetria de pesagem. Ao fim do experimento foi realizada a coleta de folhas para a determinação da concentração de nutrentes. A palma de óleo apresentou valores de ETc e Kc entre 2,16-5,00 e 0,71-1,06 respectivamente, no seu primeiro ano de cultivo irrigado. Em sua fase jovem, a cultura respondeu de forma positiva a fertirrigação com vinhaça, sendo o T3 (75% da dose de K disponibilizado via fertirrigação por vinhaça) o que demonstrou melhores resultados quanto ao crescimento da cultura em Piracicaba-SP. As características meteorológicas em Piracicaba-SP são fatores positivos para o cultivo da palma de óleo na região, contudo, a temperaturas mínimas ocorridas no inverno podem afetar o desenvolvimento da planta. / Biofuels, such as biodiesel and ethanol, are increasingly being used as substitutes for petroleum derivatives. The study of bioenergy crops has expanded into Brazil, being instituted in the country a National Program for Production and Use of Biodiesel, for their production from typical crops of the Brazilian small farming, for example, castor bean and oil palm. The oil palm crop has higher concentration in the northern region of Brazil, however, studies related to the cultivation of this crop in other regions are still incipient. Aiming to cultivate this plant in the southeast region using localized irrigation and providing nutrients by effluent from another bioenergetic plant, the sugarcane vinasse, this work had as its main objective the determination of the crop evapotranspiration of oil palm by weighing lisimetry in its young phase and to describe the effects of vinasse on the biometric, chlorophyll and foliar nutrient contents of this crop. The study was carried out in an experimental area located at Areão Farm of the Superior School of Agriculture \"Luiz de Queiroz\", USP, in Piracicaba-SP. The seedlings were grown in a greenhouse and transplanted in the field October 2015, has been evaluated between November 2015 and March 2017. The spacing used was 9 x 9 m arranged in equilateral triangle, a total of 143 plants ha-1. The treatments were arranged randomly, with three blocks composed of four replicates each, being: T1 - irrigation with chemical fertilization; T2 - 50% of the potassium (K) dose supplied via fertigation with vinasse and the other 50% of the K dose supplied with the chemical fertilizer; T3 - 75% of K dose via fertigation with vinasse and the other 25% of K dose via chemical fertilization; T4 - 100% of K dose via fertigation with vinasse. The irrigation system used was the drip irrigation. The crop evapotranspiration (ETc) was determined by weighing lysimetry. At the end of the experiment, leaves were collected to determine the nutrient concentration. The oil palm showed values of ETc and Kc between 2.16-5.00 and 0.71-1.06, respectively, in its first year of irrigated cultivation. In its young stage, the crop responded positively fertigation with vinasse, and T3 demonstrated better results regarding growth crop in Piracicaba. Weather features in Piracicaba-SP were largely a positive factor for the cultivation of oil palm in the region, however, the minimum temperatures occurred in the winter can affect the development of the plant and can have a negative influence on future productions.

Com 6 milhões de km2, a bacia Amazônica é o maior sistema hidrográfico do mundo, com descarga estimada de 209.000 m3 s-1, e a maior extensão contínua de floresta tropical. Porém, esta região é alvo de constantes ameaças, seja das pressões por desmatamento, ou por alterações climáticas. Neste contexto, compreender o funcionamento do sistema é essencial, seja para auxiliar na tomada de decisões ou estudos de cenários futuros. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar e adaptar o modelo hidrológico de grandes bacias Variable Infiltration Capacity Model (VIC v.4.0.5), para as condições tropicais. Foram utilizados dados de descarga, precipitação, temperatura e velocidade do vento, e informações sobre tipo de solo e cobertura vegetal, para simular o ciclo hidrológico em 6 grandes bacias situadas na Amazônia: Santo Antônio do Içá, Japurá, Juruá, Negro, Madeira e Purus. O modelo foi calibrado a partir das descargas mensais, de 1980 a 1990, e seu funcionamento foi verificado para o período de 1990 a 2006. Não foi possível simular o ciclo hidrológico para as bacias com grande contribuição dos Andes, Santo A. Içá e Japurá, uma vez que a estimativa de precipitação nestas regiões é subestimada. Nas outras bacias, o modelo foi capaz de simular corretamente as vazões dos rios, apesar de apresentar problemas na estimativa da evapotranspiração (ET). Foram constatados problemas na partição da ET em seus componentes, transpiração da vegetação e evaporação da água interceptada. Uma possível correção foi avaliada, resultando em uma distribuição mais correta da ET em seus componentes porém, tal modificação resultou em redução da ET média simulada. Uma nova versão do modelo (v.4.1) acaba de ser lançada. Dentre as melhorias, destacam-se modificações na maneira como a ET é calculada, que visa corrigir os problemas aqui relatados. No entanto, tal versão ainda não foi avaliada nas condições tropicais / The Amazon river basin is the largest fluvial system in the world, discharging 209,000 m3 s-1 to the ocean. It also sustains the largest continuous tropical forest system. However, the region is under constant pressure from deforestation and climate change. For such reasons, its crucial to understand how the hydrological cycle functions. Such tools can be used for evaluation of future scenarios and guide decision making. The Variable infiltration Capacity Model (VIC) was evaluated and adapted to tropical conditions. Temperature, precipitation, wind speed, soil type and land cover maps were used to simulate the hydrological cycle in 2 sub-basins inside the Amazon: Santo Antônio do Içá, Japurá, Juruá, Negro, Madeira e Purus, covering the period from 1980 to 2006. The simulation was not possible for basins with large drainage area located in the Andes (Santo A. Içá and Japurá), due to underestimation of the precipitation. For the other basins, simulated discharge agreed with observed records, even though evapotranspiration (ET) estimates showed some problems. The ET partitioning in its components, transpiration and canopy evaporation, showed severe discrepancies. A correction was applied to the model, fixing the partitioning problem but it resulted in reduction of estimate ET. A new version of the model (v.4.1) has just been released, with changes in the way ET is estimated. However, this new version has not yet been tested in the Amazon