In this applied microeconomics dissertation, we study the effect of religiosity and life events on risk preferences and how happiness affect altruism. We begin with the first chapter by examining the relationship between high-risk health behavior and religiosity. Religious beliefs can impact an individual's behavior, including their future health. The 2021 CDC analyses shows that sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are still common, with an estimated 1 in 5 people in the US having an STI, and 13% of persons in the US with age 12 years old and above consuming any illicit drugs. We estimate the effect of religiosity on high-risk health behavior using panel data from the General Social Survey and construct a high-risk health behavior index using the CDC high-risk behaviors. The religiosity index was developed by combining religiosity dimensions such as religious service attendance, prayer frequency, and religious affiliation. Ordered probit was performed to test the relationship between high-risk behavior and religiosity. The result indicates that religiosity is negatively associated with high-risk health behavior and is statistically significant. We confirmed that religious people are less likely to be involved in risky behaviors, especially for Catholics. We also find that individuals who switch religion are more likely to engage in high-risk health behaviors. In the second chapter, we examined the relationship between health and happiness and how happiness impacts altruism. The previous economics literature has shown that altruism can create a warm glow or cause happiness; we tested instead whether happy people are more altruistic. Using data from the General Social Survey (GSS) covering the period of 2002, 2004, 2012, and 2014, we employed a two-stage least square approach and performed OLS and ordered probit regression. We use health as an instrumental variable for happiness. Overall, the results indicate that happiness is associated with volunteer work and giving to charity and provide a basis for policy development to focus on promoting factors that contribute to happiness and wellbeing in order to foster pro-social behavior such as volunteering and donation to charity. Lastly, on the third chapter, we investigate how life events affect risk aversion using the German Socio-economic Panel (SOEP) Data. Our fixed effects estimation suggests that experiencing childbirth and losing parents decrease individuals' risk-taking propensity, while getting separated from a spouse or partner increases the willingness to take risks. We also find that changing jobs increases the willingness to take risks, and individuals who become self-employed tend to take more risks. Furthermore, we examine the average treatment effect on the treated (ATET) and find that for family-related events that are relatively beyond control, such as experiencing childbirth or the death of a child, parent, or spouse or partner, people tend to become more risk-averse. On the other hand, people tend to become less risk-averse for circumstances that are relatively within control, such getting married, separated, and divorced.

Idle time is a common phenomenon that prevents employees from performing their core job tasks, with detrimental effects on employee well-being and performance. Drawing on affective events theory, the job demands-resources model, and action regulation theory, this dissertation addresses three main questions: First, how idle time affects employee well-being and performance; second, the mechanisms behind these effects, namely appraisals and affective reactions; and third, the conditions under which idle time may be beneficial for employees. Study 1 (N = 338) showed indirect negative effects of objective idle time on employee well-being through the subjective experience of being idle. Age was negatively and boredom proneness positively associated with subjective idle time. Two experiments in Study 2 (N2a = 445, N2b = 597) demonstrated the detrimental effects of regulation problems on employee well-being and performance, mediated by objective and subjective idle time. Recovery activities buffered the detrimental effects of idle time. In Study 3, a 12-month, five-wave longitudinal study (N = 1,036), the associations of idle time with lower job satisfaction, higher turnover intentions, and higher counterproductive work behavior were mediated by higher boredom. Finally, the results of Study 4, based on the same data as Study 3, showed that the effects of idle time on employee exhaustion and engagement depended on boundary conditions, namely workload and autonomy. For high workload employees, idle time was positively associated with engagement, whereas when autonomy was high, idle time was associated with lower exhaustion and lower engagement. During idle time, relaxation was beneficial, whereas detachment was detrimental regarding employee exhaustion and engagement. Idle time is detrimental to employee well-being and performance, mediated by subjective idle time, boredom, and lack of recovery, respectively. Certain conditions, like high workload or using idle time for relaxation, can make it beneficial for employees. The results provide insights for research, particular in the areas of waiting, interruptions, recovery, and well-being.:Acknowledgments i English Abstract ii German Abstract iii Table of Contents iv List of Tables ix List of Figures x 1 General Introduction 1 2 Study 1: Effects of Idle Time on Well-Being – An Experimental Study 6 2.1 Abstract 6 2.2 Introduction 7 2.3 Idle Time as an Affective Event at Work 9 2.4 Method 11 2.4.1 Open Science 11 2.4.2 Study Design 11 2.4.3 Participants 12 2.4.4 Materials 13 2.4.5 Data Analysis 14 2.5 Results 15 2.5.1 Descriptive Statistics 15 2.5.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis 15 2.5.3 Manipulation Check 15 2.5.4 Hypothesis Tests 15 2.5.5 Exploratory Results 16 2.6 Discussion 17 2.6.1 Theoretical and Practical Implications 17 2.6.2 Limitations and Future Research 19 2.7 Conclusion 21 2.8 Open Data and Electronic Supplementary Materials (ESM 1) 21 3 Study 2: Idle Time, Recovery, and Work Outcomes: Results of Two Experimental Studies 26 3.1 Abstract 26 3.2 Introduction 27 3.3 Idle Time at Work 29 3.3.1 Antecedents of Idle Time 29 3.3.2 The Consequences of Idle Time 30 3.3.3 The Mechanisms Underlying Effects of Idle Time 31 3.4 Study 1 33 3.4.1 Method 33 3.4.2 Results 36 3.4.3 Discussion 37 3.5 Study 2 37 3.5.1 Method 37 3.5.2 Results 40 3.5.3 Discussion 43 3.6 General Discussion 43 3.6.1 Theoretical and Practical Implications 44 3.6.2 Limitations and Future Research 46 3.7 Conclusion 47 4 Study 3: Is it Bad Because it is Boring? Effects of Idle Time on Employee Outcomes 58 4.1 Abstract 58 4.2 Introduction 59 4.3 The Effects of Idle Time 62 4.3.1 Idle Time and Boredom 63 4.3.2 Boredom and Employee Outcomes 64 4.3.3 Idle Time and Employee Outcomes 65 4.4 Method 66 4.4.1 Participants and Procedure 66 4.4.2 Measures 68 4.4.3 Statistical Analysis 70 4.5 Results 71 4.5.1 Hypothesis Tests 71 4.5.2 Additional Analyses 73 4.6 Discussion 75 4.6.1 Theoretical and Practical Implications 75 4.6.2 Limitations and Future Research 77 4.7 Conclusion 79 5 Study 4: Can Idle Time Serve as a Resource? A Job Demands-Resources Approach 88 5.1 Abstract 88 5.2 Introduction 89 5.3 Theoretical Background and Hypotheses Development 91 5.3.1 The Downsides of Idle Time 91 5.3.2 The Benefits of Idle Time 92 5.4 Method 94 5.4.1 Participants and Procedure 94 5.4.2 Measures 95 5.4.3 Data Analysis 97 5.5 Results 97 5.5.1 Hypothesis Tests 97 5.5.2 Additional Analyses 99 5.6 Discussion 99 5.6.1 Theoretical and Practical Implications 100 5.6.2 Limitations and Future Directions 102 5.7 Conclusion 103 6 General Discussion 109 6.1 Summary 109 6.2 Theoretical Contributions 110 6.2.1 The Consequences of Idle Time 110 6.2.2 The Mechanisms Underlying Idle Time 111 6.2.3 Recovery and Boundary Conditions 112 6.3 Practical Contributions 113 6.4 Limitations and Future Directions 114 6.4.1 Affective Events Theory 114 6.4.2 Event System Theory 115 6.4.3 Action Regulation Theory 116 6.5 Conclusion 117 References 118 Appendix I Theses I Idle Time at Work I Study 1: Effects of Idle Time on Well-Being – An Experimental Study II Study 2: Idle Time, Recovery, and Work Outcomes: Results of Two Experimental Studies II Study 3: Is it Bad Because it is Boring? Effects of Idle Time on Employee Outcomes II Study 4: Can Idle Time Serve as a Resource? A Job Demands-Resources Approach III Conclusion IV References IV Thesen VI Leerlaufzeiten bei der Arbeit VI Studie 1: Auswirkungen von Leerlaufzeiten auf das Wohlbefinden – eine Experiment VII Studie 2: Leerlaufzeit, Erholung und Arbeitsergebnisse: Ergebnisse von zwei experimentellen Studien VII Studie 3: Sind sie schlecht, weil sie langweilig sind? Auswirkungen von Leerlaufzeiten auf Beschäftigte VII Studie 4: Kann Leerlaufzeit als Ressource dienen? Ein Arbeitsanforderungen-Ressourcen-Ansatz VIII Schlussfolgerungen IX Literaturverzeichnis IX Curriculum Vitae XI Publication List XII Selbstständigkeitserklärung XIV Nachweise über die Anteile der Co-Autorschaft: Studie 1 XV Nachweise über die Anteile der Co-Autorschaft: Studie 2 XVI Nachweise über die Anteile der Co-Autorschaft: Studie 3 XVII Nachweise über die Anteile der Co-Autorschaft: Studie 4 XVIII

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Violence against police officers is a major problem in America. Previous studies on violence and police officers have usually focused on violence by police officers, not violence against police officers. This study is the first of its kind as it examines violence against police officers from a comprehensive, criminal events perspective with detailed use of force/officer violence data collected by the Orlando Police Department. Individual officer characteristics, individual offender characteristics, situational variables, and geographical factors are considered. Logistic regression results indicate that use of force incidents are more likely to involve battery against one or more police officers when multiple officers are involved, when offenders are female, when offenders are of larger size (measured by weight), and when offenders are known to have recently consumed alcohol before the incident. Spatial analysis results indicate that there is significant clustering of batteries against police officers within the City of Orlando, and that the areas where police battery is predominant are very similar to areas where alcohol-related businesses are prevalent, and theoretically, more alcohol is consumed. Policy implications and directions for future research are discussed.

This study examined the rates and risks of premature neonates >2500grams developing intraoperative non-euglycemia events (IONEE). A retrospective chart review of 26 premature neonates >2500 grams who underwent surgical procedures between January 1 and December 31, 2009 was conducted. Statistical analysis was done using Chi square and t-tests. Ten of the 26 subjects (38%) experienced an IONEE. Hyperglycemia was the primary IONEE that was noted in the neonates. (Mean: 143.19; sd: 56.041) Length of surgery was significantly longer in those premature neonates with IONEE than those with euglycemia (71.7 0± 27.03 vs. 45.62 ± 17.98 minutes). All IONEE subjects received general anesthesia (n=10) while none of those with only intravenous anesthesia had an IONEE (X2 (1) = 4.875, p=.027). Subjects with IONEE had a higher mean preoperative glucose level (127.11 gm/dL ± 31.66) than those who did not experienced IONEE (86.36 gm/dL ± 29.39; t(21) = 3.151, p=.005). A higher proportion of subjects who developed IONEE had the capillary heel (60%) as opposed to an arterial (40%) site for blood collection (X2 (1) = 6.518, p =.001). Also, subjects free of preoperative pulmonary complications were more prone to develop IONEE (X2 (1)= 8.60, p = .003). The presence of IONEE was associated with development of metabolic acidosis (X2 (1)= 5.426, p=.020) and lower postoperative pH values (7.19 ± 0.20 vs. 7.35 ± 0.11). Anesthesia providers need to establish intraoperative guidelines for the monitoring and treatment of IONEE to protect these premature neonates from having complications such as developmental delay.

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