Impairments in both theory of mind (ToM; the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others) and executive function (EF; a group of high-level cognitive functions which help guide and control goal-directed behaviour) have been demonstrated in individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Both deficits have been proposed by different groups of researchers as being the single primary cognitive deficit of autism, which can subsume the other deficit as secondary or artefactual. However, few studies have examined the nature of the relationship between ToM and EF in ASDs or conducted a systematic investigation of their relative primacy. This research principally sought to establish the primacy and independence of impairments in ToM and EF in ASDs and thereby evaluate the validity of single versus multiple primary deficit models of autism. These aims were addressed in two studies, both broad in scope. The first study was an investigation of the profile, primacy, and independence of ToM and EF impairments in individuals with ASDs. The sample included 46 participants with ASDs and 48 control participants matched on age and non-verbal ability. The profile of impairments was examined by measuring ToM and a range of EF components using tasks employing, wherever possible, process-pure indices of performance. Primacy was measured by focussing on i) whether or not the deficits observed were universal among individuals with ASDs; ii) whether the deficits were able to discriminate individuals with ASDs from matched controls (i.e., predict group membership); and iii) the ability of ToM and EF deficits to explain the full range of autistic symptomatology, as measured by correlating cognitive performances with behavioural indices. The relationship between ToM and EF impairments was investigated by conducting correlations between ToM and EF variables as well as analysing the incidence of dissociations between impairments in the two domains. The ASD group was found to demonstrate significant impairments in ToM and several components of EF including planning, verbal inhibition, working memory (in a context where inhibitory control was required), and both verbal and non-verbal generativity. However, neither ToM nor EF impairments were able to meet all of the criteria for a primary deficit in ASDs. EF deficits were found to be more primary, but could not account for ToM as a secondary deficit, as ToM and EF were found to be independent (i.e., uncorrelated and dissociable) deficits in the ASD group. This pattern of results suggested that a multiple deficits model involving at least two independent impairments appeared to best characterise ASDs, but the data were compatible with several variants of such a model (e.g., involving distinct subtypes versus a multidimensional spectrum). The second study was an investigation of ToM and EF impairments in siblings of individuals with ASDs, who have previously been found to demonstrate a subclinical “broad autism phenotype”. The main aims of this study were i) to identify whether ToM or EF deficits could meet criteria for an “endophenotype” or vulnerability marker for the autism genotype in unaffected relatives, which would have further implications about the primacy of ToM and EF in ASDs; and ii) to further investigate the validity of various multiple deficits models of ASDs by examining the pattern of ToM and EF performance in those showing the broad phenotype. Participants were 108 siblings of individuals with ASDs and 67 siblings of controls, tested on the same ToM and EF tasks used in the first study. Confirming the superior primacy of EF deficits found in Study One, there was no significant difference in ToM performance between ASD and control siblings, but ASD siblings showed weaknesses on two measures of EF. Furthermore, there appeared to be different subgroups of siblings demonstrating different cognitive profiles, consistent with the heterogeneity evident in the first study. This research indicated that ASDs cannot be explained by a single primary cognitive deficit. These findings hold important theoretical and empirical implications and highlight further questions about which type of multiple deficits model might best explain ASDs.

The purpose of this study was to examine the development of the ability to multitask in children along with other executive control processes that likely underlie goal-directed behavior in novel situations. 35 children, ages 7-11, completed an experimental multitasking paradigm, the Children’s Multiple Activities Game (CMAG), and an existing measure, the Six Parts Test (SPT) as well as two working memory and inhibition tasks and a prospective memory task. Results indicated that multitasking ability improves across this age range and is related to a number of executive abilities. Performance on the CMAG was related to a number of executive abilities, while the SPT was unrelated to these measures. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the development of this ability in children. Findings will be discussed in terms of how this ability develops in relation to cognitive processes that are crucial and account for its variation.

The purpose of this cross-sectional, correlational study was to test a bio behavioral model that proposes self-regulation affects body mass index (BMI) and executive function (EF) mediates the relationship between self-regulation and BMI in a sample of female monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins age 25-64 (N=120). The model also suggests that genes influence EF. EF was measured with the TEXAS (a telephone administered measure of global EF) and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS11). Self-regulation was measured with the Goal Systems Assessment Battery (GSAB), a self-report item with nine subscales representing different aspects of Self-regulation. BMI was collected by self-report. Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to adjust for the dependence among the twin pairs. Results showed that Self-Regulation was not associated with BMI, nor was EF associated with BMI, although the association between the TEXAS and BMI trended toward significance (r = .17, p = .062). To examine the genetic influence on EF, a smaller sample was used, comprised only of the twin pairs (N=68, 34 pairs, 20 MZ pairs and 14 DZ pairs) and differences between MZ and DZ twins pairs were compared. The MZ (median 0.76) twins had an 18.3% lower median difference on the composite EF score than the DZ twins (median 0.93), but the Mann Whitney test was non-significant (p = .204). It is not known whether this result is due to the small sample size or reflects no difference between the MZ and DZ twins. Exploratory findings showed that four of the individual subscales of the GSAB correlated with BMI including Self Efficacy (r = -.305, p<.001), Planning/Stimulus Control (r = -.193, p<.05), Negative Affect (r = .230, p<.05), and Self-Criticism (r = .230, p<.05). Two of the individual subscales of the GSAB were associated with the BIS11: Social (r = .186, p<.05) and Negative Affect (r = .331, p<.000) and two were associated with the composite EF score. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression-Revised (CESD-R) was associated with both the composite EF score (r = .232, p<.05) and the TEXAS (r = .201, p<.05), and was associated with four of the subscales of the GSAB: Planning Stimulus Control (r = -.262, p<.01), Self Criticism (r = .488, p<.000), Positive Affect (r = -.309, p<.01) and Negative Affect (r = .496, p<.001). A linear regression model entering all nine of the Self-regulation subscales as predictors of BMI showed that the subscale Positive Affect contributed the most to the model (β= .455, p<.01), with Directive Self Efficacy (β= -2.73, p<.01) and Planning/Stimulus Control (β= -.322, p<.05) also significant. The remaining subscales were not significant. Future studies should use a larger sample size and participants known to be actively working on weight control goals.

Bilinguals have been posited to have, compared to monolinguals, enhanced cognitive control, consequently exhibiting greater cognitive reserve, which is thought to subsequently delay the onset of clinical expression of dementia. Based on recent evidence suggesting that the more languages one manages the greater cognitive reserve, and that trilinguals undergo greater exercise in language control than bilinguals, this thesis investigated the effects of trilingualism and ageing on cognitive control, in young adults to older adults. As the thesis investigated the novel field of trilingualism and cognitive control, task complexity, the age of second and third language acquisition, language use, and physical and cognitive activity were also, importantly, assessed, as these are possible influencing factors in test performance. The participants completed several cognitive tasks; namely the Simon task, the Inhibition of return task, the Stroop task (inhibition) and the N-back task (working memory). The novel discovery of a trilingual (and bilingual) disadvantage was observed, which could explain some previous inconsistent findings in the bilingualism literature, where trilingualism may influence bilinguals’ test performance, as trilinguals and multilinguals are often mixed in with the bilingual group. Furthermore, the results suggest that second language acquisition and language use does not consistently predict performance in trilinguals (and bilinguals), nor does cognitive activity, although physical activity may modulate language group differences. Importantly, the results from this novel investigation of the effects of trilingualism and ageing on cognitive control suggest that trilingualism (and bilingualism) can, in some cases, be detrimental to cognitive control.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-22T20:50:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-05-26 / O “Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function” (BRIEF) é um instrumento de avaliação das funções executivas refletindo aspectos da vida diária de crianças e adolescentes entre 5 e 18 anos de idade. Consta de três versões, ou seja, a escala para pais, professores e versão pessoal. O objetivo do presente estudo foi traduzir e adaptar, para o português do Brasil, o BRIEF, assim como analisar as propriedades psicométricas iniciais. O processo de tradução e adaptação seguiu os passos recomendados na literatura e amplamente preconizados pelo International Test Commission (ITC). Para análise da adequação da adaptação, assim como das propriedades psicométricas, foram realizados dois estudos pilotos, sendo que a versão final foi administrada numa amostra constituída por 277 pais, sendo 59,6% do sexo feminino, 282 professores, sendo 57,4% feminino, 112 pessoal, sendo 63,4% feminino. Os valores dos Alfas de Cronbach, avaliando consistência interna para os principais índices do questionário dos pais oscilaram entre 0,901 e 0,945, do questionário dos professores oscilaram entre 0,915 e 0,959 e, os do questionário pessoal oscilaram entre 0,924 e 0,957, indicando adequados coeficientes de fidedignidade do teste. A análise fatorial de componente principal extraiu dois fatores (Fator 1 Metacognição; Fator 2 Regulação do Comportamento). No questionário dos pais, os dois fatores foram correlatos (r=0,56). No questionário dos professores, a correlação foi 0,400, e no questionário pessoal, a correlação foi 0,70. Os valores encontrados na versão brasileira se assemelham ao relatados na versão original, indicando boa consistência interna do instrumento nas 3 versões. / Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) is an instrument that assesses executive functions, reflecting daily life aspects of children and teenagers aged between 5 and 18 years old. It has three versions, that is, the parenting scale, the teachers’ scale and a personal version. The purpose of this study was to translate and to adapt, into Brazilian Portuguese, BRIEF, as well as to analyze the initial psychometric properties. The translation and adaptation process followed the steps recommended in literature and widely endorsed by International Test Commission (ITC). To analyze the adaptation’s adequacy, as well as the psychometric properties, two pilot studies were carried out, and the final version was administered to a sample comprised of 277 parents, being 59.6% female, 282 teachers, being 57.4% female, 112 personal, being 63.4% female. The Cronbach’s Alpha values, assessing internal consistency for the main items of the parents’ questionnaire ranged from 0.901 to 0.945, the ones concerning the teachers’ questionnaire ranged from 0.915 to 0.959 and those concerning the personal questionnaire ranged from 0.924 and 0.957, showing proper coefficients of test’s trustworthiness. The factorial analysis of main component extracted two factors (Factor 1: Metacognition; Factor 2: Behavior Regulation). In the parents’ questionnaire, both factors were correlated (r=0.56). In the teachers’ questionnaire, correlation was 0.400, and in the personal questionnaire correlation was 0.70. The values found in the Brazilian version are similar to those reported in the original version, showing good internal consistency of the instrument in the three versions. / TEDE / BV UNIFESP: Teses e dissertações

abstract: This study examines the relations among three aspects of temperament (shyness, impulsivity, and effortful control), resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) recorded during a calming film and RSA suppression during three behavioral measures of effortful control, and adjustment (anxiety and externalizing behavior) in a sample of 101 preschool-age children. Principal components analysis was used to create composites for effortful control, shyness, impulsivity, anxiety, and externalizing behavior, and hierarchical regression analysis was used to test the study hypotheses. As expected, baseline RSA was negatively related to effortful control in shy children, but was unrelated to effortful control in children who were not shy. It was hypothesized that high baseline RSA would reduce the relation between shyness and anxiety, and between impulsivity and externalizing behavior; this hypothesis was supported for externalizing behavior, but not for anxiety. The interaction between impulsivity and RSA as a predictor of externalizing was statistically independent of effortful control, indicating that these are unique effects. Finally, it was hypothesized that RSA suppression would be positively related to effortful control for children low, but not high, in shyness. There was a marginal interaction between shyness and RSA suppression, with RSA suppression marginally negatively related to EC for children low in shyness, but unrelated to effortful control for children high in shyness; the direction of this association was opposite predictions. These findings indicate that RSA is more strongly related to effortful control for children high in shyness, and that it consequently may not be appropriate to use RSA as an index of EC for all children. This study also draws attention to the need to consider the context in which baseline RSA is measured because a true baseline may not be obtained for shy children if RSA is measured in an unfamiliar laboratory context. The finding that high RSA moderated (but did not eliminate) the relation between impulsivity and externalizing behavior is consistent with the conceptualization of RSA as a measure of self-regulation, but further research is needed to clarify the mechanism underlying this effect. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. Psychology 2012

Inhibitory control, described as the ability to suppress one response in favor of a goal-directed response, is thought to play an important role in the development of emotional regulation as well as various forms of psychopathology, including ADHD. Up until very recently, inhibitory control has been researched within two completely separate fields of study: temperament and neuropsychology. In the temperament/personality literature, inhibitory control is a major component of the overarching temperament/personality factor of Effortful Control/Conscientiousness. In the field of neuropsychology, inhibitory control is considered one aspect of executive function. Further complicating the current understanding of inhibitory control is the complexity of the underlying neural networks implicated in inhibitory control. This study examined inhibitory control in temperament and executive function in children with and without ADHD, and it explored the relationship between inhibitory control and the superior frontal cortex (SFC) and orbital frontal cortex (OFC) volumes. In order to assess subareas of the OFC and SFC, an innovative parcellation method was used. Results suggested that the temperament and executive function measures of inhibitory control did form a single factor as long as they were measured within the same modality, parent-report. In contrast, the performance-based measure of inhibitory control was not correlated with any of the parent-report measures of inhibitory control and was, therefore, analyzed separately in relation to OFC and SFC volumes. Parent-rated inhibitory control was predicted by ADHD status only, but exploratory analyses suggested that left anterior SFC, right and left anterior medial OFC, and gender were related to parent-rated inhibitory control. In contrast, performance-based inhibitory control was predicted by gender and left SFC, specifically posterior left SFC. Taken together, these findings suggest a conceptual overlap between temperament and executive function that brings together two areas of the literature and has implications for the understanding of various forms of psychopathology characterized by deficits in inhibitory control. This study provides evidence for the role of the SFC and the OFC in inhibitory control, depending upon the measurement method, and contributes to the broader understanding of the neural mechanisms of inhibitory control in children.

xii, 98 p. : ill. (some col.) / The short and long term pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury (TBI) has not been fully elucidated. Individuals recently suffering a mild TBI (mTBI) or having a history of TBI frequently suffer deficits in their ability to maintain and allocate attention within and between tasks. This dissertation examines the influence of mild and chronic TBI on performance of task switching. We employed spatial and numerical task switching paradigms to assess the behavioral deficits in mTBI, and we used an internally generated switching and an externally cued switching task along with functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to assess the long term deficits in executive function resulting from chronic TBI. In the first experiment, individuals with mTBI were identified and tested within the first 48 hours of injury and then at a set interval 5, 14, and 28 days post injury. In the second investigation, individuals with chronic TBI were tested at least 12 months after their most recent injury. Healthy gender, age, and education matched controls were also tested in both studies. This research demonstrated that mTBI subjects display deficits in switching behavior within 48 hours of injury that failed to resolve a month post-injury; however, these costs did not generalize across the switching task types. Chronic TBI subjects performed internally generated and externally cued switching paradigms with a degree of success equivalent to that of healthy controls but displayed larger amounts of activation and recruited more areas of the brain at lower levels of difficulty and did not increase recruitment in a stepwise fashion at higher levels of difficulty. Mild TBI causes significant deficits in task switching, but there is specificity in these deficits. Chronic TBI patients performed at a level equivalent to that of controls but displayed different patterns and degree of activation. Taken together, these findings indicate that there may be a specific time frame during which task switching shows behavioral deficits, after which the subject may compensate for these deficits to produce normalized performance. / Committee in Charge: Dr. Paul van Donkelaar, Chair; Dr. Li-Shan Chou; Dr. Ulrich Mayr; Dr. Marjorie Woollacott

xvi, 68 p. : ill. / Approximately 1.5 million concussions occur annually in the United States, many affecting individuals between the ages of 15 and 18. Little is known about this age group's response to a concussion as they have been thought to respond differently than adults due to immature brain development. Additionally, relying on symptoms alone to determine level of brain function may lead to early return back to sport participation. Through the use of 3 computerized tests, neuropsychological and attentional deficit recovery post concussion was assessed between 12 subjects with concussions and 12 controls up to 2 months after injury. Memory tasks and symptoms resolved within a week after injury. Executive function tests showed small group differences up to two months post injury, suggesting these types of tests may be a useful tool in the evaluation of concussion recovery and provide an objective measure in evaluation. / Committee in charge: Dr. Li-Shan Chou, Chair; Dr. Lou Osternig, Member; Dr. Sierra Dawson, Member; Dr. Grace Golden, Member

O presente estudo avaliou um grupo de pacientes com transtorno do humor bipolar (THB), episódio depressivo, através de uma bateria de testes neuropsicológicos – Dígitos da Escala Wechsler de Inteligência para Adultos, 3ª edição (WAIS-III) e Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) –, escala de funcionalidade – Functioning Assessment Short Test (FAST) – e escala de sintomas depressivos – Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) – e o comparou com um grupo de controles saudáveis. Obtiveram-se como resultados déficits cognitivos significativos no grupo dos pacientes com THB, no que se refere à memória imediata e de trabalho e funções executivas, quando comparados aos controles saudáveis. Também se encontrou uma correlação entre funcionalidade, sintomatologia depressiva e déficits na memória de trabalho e funcionamento executivo. Estes achados levantam a hipótese de que as dificuldades cognitivas e sintomas depressivos interferem significativamente no funcionamento laboral, afetivo e social dos pacientes com THB. / The present study evaluated a group of patients with Bipolar Disorder (BD), major depressive episode, through a battery of neuropsychological tests - Digits of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Adults, 3rd edition (WAIS-III) and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) - scale functionality - Functioning Assessment Short Test (FAST) - and scale of depressive symptoms - Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating scale (MADRS) - and compared with a group of healthy controls. Results were obtained as significant cognitive deficits in the patients with BD, with regard to the immediate and working memory and executive functions compared to healthy controls. We also found a correlation between functionality, depressive symptoms and deficits in working memory and executive functioning. These findings raise the hypothesis that the cognitive and depressive symptoms significantly interfere with work functioning, affective and social development of BD patients.