The Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) is one of the most technologically advanced developments in South Africa. In order to build a commercially viable demonstration power plant, all the specifically and uniquely designed equipment must first be qualified. All the prototype equipment is tested at the Helium Test Facility (HTF) at Pelindaba. One of the largest components that are tested is the Core Unloading Device (CUD). The main function of the CUD is to unload fuel from the bottom of the reactor core to enable circulation of the fuel core. The CUD housing vessel forms part of the reactor pressure boundary. Pebble-directing valves and other moving machinery are installed inside its machined inner surface. It is essential that the interior surfaces of the CUD are case hardened to provide a corrosion- and wear-resistant layer. Cold welding between the moving metal parts and the machined surface must also be prevented. Nitriding is a case hardening process that adds a hardened wear- and corrosion-resistant layer that will also prevent cold welding of the moving parts in the helium atmosphere. Only a few nitriding furnaces exist that can house a forging as large as the CUD of the PBMR. Commercial nitriding furnaces in South Africa are all too small and have limited flexibility in terms of the nitriding process. The nitriding of a vessel as large as the CUD has not yet been carried out commercially. The aim of this work was to design and develop a custom-made nitriding plant to perform the nitriding of the first PBMR/HTF CUD. Proper process control is essential to ensure that the required nitrided case has been obtained. A new concept for a gas nitriding plant was developed using the nitrided vessel interior as the nitriding process chamber. Before the commencement of detail design, a laboratory test was performed on a scale model vessel to confirm concept feasibility. The design of the plant included the mechanical design of various components essential to the nitriding process. A special stirring fan with an extended length shaft was designed, taking whirling speed into account. Considerable research was performed on the high temperature use of the various components to ensure the safe operation of the plant at temperatures of up to 600°C. Nitriding requires the use of hazardous gases such as ammonia, oxygen and nitrogen. Hydrogen is produced as a by-product and therefore safety was the most important design parameter. Thermohydraulic analyses, i.e. heat transfer and pressure drop calculations in pipes, were also performed to ensure the successful process design of the nitriding plant. The nitriding plant was subsequently constructed and operated to verify the correct design. A large amount of experimental and operating data was captured during the actual operation of the plant. This data was analysed and the thermohydraulic analyses were verified. Nitrided specimens were subjected to hardness and layer thickness tests. The measured temperature of the protruding fan shaft was within the limits predicted by Finite Element Analysis (FEA) models. Graphs of gas flow rates and other operation data confirmed the inverse proportionality between ammonia supply flow rate and measured dissociation rate. The design and operation of the nitriding plant were successful as a nitride layer thickness of 400 μm and hardness of 1 200 Vickers hardness (VHN) was achieved. This research proves that a large pressure vessel can successfully be nitrided using the vessel interior as a process chamber. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

The Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) is one of the most technologically advanced developments in South Africa. In order to build a commercially viable demonstration power plant, all the specifically and uniquely designed equipment must first be qualified. All the prototype equipment is tested at the Helium Test Facility (HTF) at Pelindaba. One of the largest components that are tested is the Core Unloading Device (CUD). The main function of the CUD is to unload fuel from the bottom of the reactor core to enable circulation of the fuel core. The CUD housing vessel forms part of the reactor pressure boundary. Pebble-directing valves and other moving machinery are installed inside its machined inner surface. It is essential that the interior surfaces of the CUD are case hardened to provide a corrosion- and wear-resistant layer. Cold welding between the moving metal parts and the machined surface must also be prevented. Nitriding is a case hardening process that adds a hardened wear- and corrosion-resistant layer that will also prevent cold welding of the moving parts in the helium atmosphere. Only a few nitriding furnaces exist that can house a forging as large as the CUD of the PBMR. Commercial nitriding furnaces in South Africa are all too small and have limited flexibility in terms of the nitriding process. The nitriding of a vessel as large as the CUD has not yet been carried out commercially. The aim of this work was to design and develop a custom-made nitriding plant to perform the nitriding of the first PBMR/HTF CUD. Proper process control is essential to ensure that the required nitrided case has been obtained. A new concept for a gas nitriding plant was developed using the nitrided vessel interior as the nitriding process chamber. Before the commencement of detail design, a laboratory test was performed on a scale model vessel to confirm concept feasibility. The design of the plant included the mechanical design of various components essential to the nitriding process. A special stirring fan with an extended length shaft was designed, taking whirling speed into account. Considerable research was performed on the high temperature use of the various components to ensure the safe operation of the plant at temperatures of up to 600°C. Nitriding requires the use of hazardous gases such as ammonia, oxygen and nitrogen. Hydrogen is produced as a by-product and therefore safety was the most important design parameter. Thermohydraulic analyses, i.e. heat transfer and pressure drop calculations in pipes, were also performed to ensure the successful process design of the nitriding plant. The nitriding plant was subsequently constructed and operated to verify the correct design. A large amount of experimental and operating data was captured during the actual operation of the plant. This data was analysed and the thermohydraulic analyses were verified. Nitrided specimens were subjected to hardness and layer thickness tests. The measured temperature of the protruding fan shaft was within the limits predicted by Finite Element Analysis (FEA) models. Graphs of gas flow rates and other operation data confirmed the inverse proportionality between ammonia supply flow rate and measured dissociation rate. The design and operation of the nitriding plant were successful as a nitride layer thickness of 400 μm and hardness of 1 200 Vickers hardness (VHN) was achieved. This research proves that a large pressure vessel can successfully be nitrided using the vessel interior as a process chamber. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή αναπτύσσεται ο υδροδυναμικός και δομικός (μηχανολογικός) σχεδιασμός μιας υποθαλάσσιας κατασκευής για την απάντληση πετρελαίου σε μεγάλα βάθη. Η κατασκευή αποτελείταια από 6 διαφορετικά τμήματα. Ο μηχανολογικός σχεδιασμός ξεκίνησε με την προσαρμογή κατάλληλων προδιαγραφών για το κάθε εξάρτημα. Το πρώτο εξάρτημα από το οποίο ξεκίνησε η ανάλυση είναι τα καλώδια ενίσχυσης των οποίων το φορτίο προέντασης είναι ήδη γνωστό από τα κριτήρια σχεδιασμού και τον αρχικό σχεδιασμό και περιορίζεται στους 1000 τόνους (10000 kN). Πραγματοποιήθηκε η τελική επιλογή του υλικού και των χαρακτηριστικών που έπρεπε να έχει ώστε να ανταποκρίνεται στις απαιτήσεις του θαλάσσιου περιβάλλοντος. Ο κατακόρυφος αγωγός με βάση την φιλοσοφία ανάπτυξης του συστήματος θα έπρεπε να αποτελείται από επιμέρους τμήματα αγωγών πεπερασμένου μήκους, κατασκευασμένους από πολυαιθυλένιο οι οποίοι καλύπτουν το συνολικό επιχειρησιακό βάθος. Η αλληλεπίδραση του θαλασσίου ρεύματος με τον αγωγό (Fluid Structure Interaction) για την κάθε διαφορετική ταχύτητα του θαλασσίου προφίλ ώστε να αποφευχθεί η πιθανότητα εμφάνισης επαγώμενων στροβίλων που θα μπορούσαν να οδηγήσουν σε ανεπιθύμητες ταλαντώσεις και σε κόπωση (Vortex Induced Vibration, VIV) τέθηκε σε πρώτη πρωτεραιότητα. Ο συνδυασμός αναλυτικών σχέσεων και πειραματικών δεδομένων από την βιβλιογραφία χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για να υπολογιστεί το μήκος των επιμέρους τμημάτων των αγωγών ώστε να περιοριστούν οι υψηλές εγκάρσιες μετατοπίσεις λόγω των ταλαντώσεων. Η μελέτη της διφασικής ροής πετρελαίου/ νερού σε κώδικα πεπερασμένων όγκων (FLUENT) πραγματοποιήθηκε τόσο για κατακόρυφη όσο και για κεκλιμένη θέση του αγωγού για να επιβεβαιωθεί ότι το αργό πετρέλαιο διατηρεί ανωστική πορεία προς την επιφάνεια ξεπερνώντας τις δυνάμεις τριβής που αναπτύσσονται λόγω της επαφής με τα τοιχώματα των αγωγών. Η ταχύτητα του μίγματος της εσωτερικής ροής καταγράφεται ώστε να ελεγχθεί η εσωτερική μεταβολή της πίεσης του αγωγού. Πιθανή υψηλή διαφοροποίηση της υδροστατικής πίεσης στο εσωτερικό του αγωγού σε σχέση με το εξωτερικό θα οδηγούσε σε επιπλέον φορτία στην δομή του αγωγού (ο αγωγός θα λειτουργούσε τοπικά ως πιεστικό δοχείο). Η προσομοίωση της εξωτερικής ροής γύρω από τμήμα του αγωγού με τα καλώδια ενίσχυσης τοποθετημένα στην περιφερειά του σε κώδικα πεπερασμένων όγκων FLUENT πραγματοποιήθηκε για τον προσδιορισμό των υδροδυναμικών συντελεστών στο εύρος ταχυτήτων 0.1-0.7 m/sec. Επίσης η μοντέλοποίηση αυτή έδειξε κατά πόσο η θέση των νημάτων επιρεάζει ή όχι την δημιουργία επαγώμενων στροβίλων γύρω από τον αγωγό. Η δομική ανάλυση με χρήση πακέτου πακέτου πεπερασμένων στοιχείων (NASTRAN/ PATRAN) έδειξε τα επίπεδα των μέγιστων τάσεων και μετατοπίσεων που αναπτύσσονται λόγω της ύπαρξης της δυναμικής πίεσης η οποία και καταπονεί τοπικά τους αγωγούς. Η αποθηκευτική δεξαμενή (πλωτήρας και συλλέκτης) σχεδιάστηκε με χρήση βασικών υπολογισμών ώστε να επιτευχθεί η κατάλληλη χωρητικότητα αλλά και η προδεγεγραμμένη άνωση. Ο προσδιορισμός των υδροδυναμικών συντελεστών πραγματοποιήθηκε σε FLUENT έτσι ώστε να διερευνηθεί το ροικό πεδίο γύρω από την δεξαμενή καθώς και το μέγεθος των δυνάμεων που μεταφέρονται στο σύστημα από την αλληλεπιδρασή της με το θαλάσσιο ρεύμα. Η δομή του πλωτήρα σχεδιάστηκε με χρήση βασικών δομικών υπολογισμών και η συνολική του συμπεριφορά κάτω από τα φορτία υδροστατικής πίεσης ελέγχθηκε με πεπερασμένα στοιχεία (NASTRAN/ PATRAN). Η δομή του συλλέκτη διαστασιολογήθηκε με βάση την επίδραση της δυναμικής πίεσης ένεκα της ροής γύρω του. Επίσης παρατίθονται οι βασικές δομικές αναλύσεις των συνδέσμων που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την ένωση των διαφόρων τμημάτων πλωτήρα και συλλέκτη. Το μοντέλο πλήρους κλίμακας αναπτύχθηκε με βάση τα πειράματα της υδροσήραγγας που πραγματοποιήθηκαν στην MARIN και με βάση του μοντέλου δυναμικής απόκρισης που δημιουργήθηκε στο ORCAFLEX από την SIREHNA. Σκοπός του μοντέλου πλήρους κλίμακας (με την χρήση NASTRAN/PATRAN) ήταν να εξομοιώσει την απόκριση του μοντέλου του ORCAFLEX το οποίο είχε ρυθμιστεί με βάση την υδροσήραγγα ώστε να υπολογιστούν οι δυνάμεις που μεταφέρονται στους δακτυλίους ενίσχυσης και τα φορτία (δυνάμεις και ροπές) που μεταφέρονται στο ενδιάμεσο στοιχείο. Τα δύο μοντέλα θα έπρεπε να εμφανίζουν την ίδια μέγιστη μετατόπιση ώστε να θεωρηθούν όμοια. Στην φάση αυτή τα καλώδια ενίσχυσης που μοντελοποιούνται με μονοδιάστατα στοιχεία στο NASTRAN/PATRAN . Το ενδιάμεσο στοιχείο αποτέλεσε το εξάρτημα στο οποίο μεταφέρονται τα φορτία του αγωγού στο σημείο σύνδεσης (δυνάμεις και οι ροπές) καθώς και οι δυνάμεις από τα καλώδια ενίσχυσης. Η δομική του ανάλυση περιλαμβάνει την διαστασιολόγηση του με βασικούς υπολογισμούς και την χρήση πεπερασμένων στοιχείων για τον έλεγχο τοπικών υπεφορτίσεων που δεν ήταν εφικτό να προσδιοριστούν με αναλυτικές σχέσεις. Ο θόλος επιρεάζεται από την ταχύτητα των θαλασσίων ρευμάτων που κινούνται γύρω του και αποτελούν τις κύριες δυνάμεις που τον επιρεάζουν. Η μοντελοποίηση της δυναμικής πίεσης πάνω στον αγωγό γίνεται με την χρήση υδροδυναμικού μοντέλου σε FLUENT ενώ η δομική του αντοχή προσδιορίστηκε με χρήση μοντέλου πεπερασμένων στοιχείων σε NASTRAN/ PATRAN. Οι δυνάμεις μεταφέρονταν στα καλώδια ενίσχυσης του θόλου που με την σειρά τους τις μμετέφεραν στο σύστημα αγκύρωσης στον βυθό. Το σύστημα αγκύρωσης διαστασιολογείται με αναλυτικούς υπολογισμούς από την βιβλιογραφία με βάση την μέγιστη δύναμη που μεταφέρεται από τα καλώδια αγκύρωσης του θόλου. Οι διαστάσεις του είναι συνάρτηση τόσο της σύστασης του βυθού όσο και της μέγιστης επιτρεπόμενης διάστασης που επιλέγεται από τα πλοία που συμμετέχουν στην ανάπτυξη του συστήματος. Τα βασικά συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από την ανάλυση ήταν η δυνατότητα της περαιτέρω ανάπτυξης του συστήματος σε ρηχά και πολύ βαθιά ύδατα καθώς και η ανάγκη για την μείωση του χρόνου κατασκευής ώστε να αυξηθεί η αποδοτικότητα του συστήματος. / In this PhD work, the mechanical design of a Sub sea Oil Recovery Structure is carried out. The structure is consisted of 6 different parts. The mechanical design methodology starts with the calculation of the diameter of the mooring lines for a tension force of 10000 kN. The fluid/ structure interaction is a design aspect for the Riser tube. Analytical equations were used to identify the dimensions of each riser tube’s part in order to avoid Vortex Induced Vibrations (VIV). As a second step, the oil upward movement into the riser tube was investigated. The buoyancy flow was examined using CFD analysis for both, vertical and inclined tube position to confirm that the crude oil could overcome the frictional forces due to contact with the internal tube’s wall. The external flow field around the riser tube, with the mooring lines along its periphery, was investigated in order to calculate the hydrodynamic coefficients for a range from 0.1 to 0.7 m/sec. This analysis was necessary since it helps to quantify the hydrodynamic load for the structural analysis. The structural analysis for the riser tube parts was performed using FEM and it was used for the study of the behavior under “local” loads such as the sea current’s dynamic pressure. The Buffer Bell’s analysis is based on the prediction of hydrodynamic coefficients (obtained from CFD analysis) and the use of a FE model for the structural analysis of the Buffer Bell hull subject to the hydrostatic pressure. The maximum displacement of the system due to the sea currents was also examined. A scale model test was performed in a water tunnel and a dynamic response model was created in order to predict the system’s behavior under operational loads and during the deployment phase. Additional, a FE model was developed to predict the loads (forces and moments) acting on the stiffening rings and the dome interface unit during the operational scenario. This FE model was compared with the Dynamic Response Model for the maximum displacement criterion. The maximum loads (forces and moments) from the Maximum Displacement FE model was used for the calculation of the dimensions of the stiffening ring and the dome interface unit. Finite element models were developed for these two components. A CFD analysis was performed to investigate the pressure distribution over the surface of the Dome. This pressure load and the reaction forces resulted from the analysis of the Dome Interface Unit were used to calculate the stresses faced by the Dome and the total force applied on the mooring system. For the dimensioning of the anchoring system, the highest force calculated for the mooring lines was chosen. The volume of cement for the anchoring system was calculated in order to withstand this force. Analytical equations were used to secure the anchor’s stability on different types of seabed (cohesion or cohesion less). At the end, the maximum calculated force on the mooring line was compared against the force resulted during the first step in order to confirm that fracture does not occur. The conclusions from this analysis is that the system can be applied to all depths (shallow waters, ultra deep waters) but also the final erection time should be minimized in order to increase the system’s efficiency.

Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Magister Technologiae in Electrical Engineering at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology SUPERVISOR: E. VOSS NOVEMBER 2013 / The reluctance synchronous machine (RSM) operates on the principle of magnetic reluctance, which is produced through a careful selection of rotor flux barriers and cut-outs. Magnetic reluctivity is the resistance to magnetic flux and can be directly related to the principles of Ohm’s law in electrical circuits. Although reluctance motors have been known for more than 150 years, researchers lost interest when Nikola Tesla’s induction machine (IM) was introduced to industry. Over the last few decades, however, RSMs have shown a lot of potential. They are cheap, robust, reliable, and their rotors can also be used in the stators of IMs. The disadvantage of these machines is an inherently high torque ripple, being the result of its rotor geometry, but the biggest advantage is having a significant reduction in copper losses after the rotor cage has been removed. This advantage drove engineers to investigate, optimise and modify the performance and structure of this machine, which led to the usage of electronic drive systems. The recent advances in technology have allowed researchers to further investigate and modify the design and performance of this special type of machine, with the integration of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) software also making a contribution to the development of the RSM’s current driven systems. The voltage-fed RSM, driven direct-on-line (DOL) from the utility supply, was left in the shadows as the current-fed RSM took reign, but still is, in the author’s opinion, not yet fully analysed. This thesis practically investigates the performance characteristics of the cageless, voltage-fed 3kW RSM in its steady-state operation, under various loads. These performance characteristics are also compared to a RSM driven from a sensorless vector drive (current-fed) to investigate the advantages and disadvantages between the two. Experiments performed on the test bench immediately reveal a limitation to the voltage-fed RSM’s ability to drive higher loads. While the current-fed RSM conveniently reaches 150% of its full-load, the voltage-fed RSM, due to its cageless structure, only reaches 110% of its full-load power. Despite this discovery, the voltage-fed RSM proves to have a lower core loss, harmonic content and torque ripple. Using a FE software package with an integrated source-code, additional parameters such as the dq-axis inductances and currents are also compared and analysed in terms of its reaction to an increase in load. The eddy-current, hysteresis and excess losses are also analysed as well as the harmonic components caused by the geometry of the RSM. For academic purposes, a fair amount of emphasis is placed on the approach to the problem. The preparation for the FE simulation is explained in detail, providing insight into the FE mathematical model as well as parameter acquisition. These parameters include current angle, friction and windage losses, stator resistance, end-winding leakage reactance, core loss and inertia. The results obtained by the FE model are compared to that of the measured results and is found to have an error of only 0.52%. Furthermore, this study attempts to find the feasibility of the voltage-fed RSM’s practicality in modern-day industry. The conclusion is drawn that the voltage-fed RSM could be used as a more elegant alternative to an otherwise over-complicated and over-priced installation.

Nous avons développé un modèle numérique du traitement des anévrismes de l'aorte abdominale (AAA) en utilisant l'analyse par éléments finis (FEA). L'objectif est de simuler les différentes étapes de la procédure endovasculaire dans la phase préopératoire. Pour cela, dans un premier temps, on a fait des études expérimentales Macro et Nano de rupture, indentation, traction, frottement des outils métalliques et des biomatériaux. Ensuite, on a développé une nouvelle approche de la conception des structures anatomiques très angulées et hétérogènes, et enfin, on a crée une maquette numérique de l’interaction outils métalliques et biomatériaux. Dans ce modèle, nous avons pris en compte la géométrie réelle reconstituée à partir des scans, une caractérisation locale des propriétés mécaniques guide / cathéter, une cartographie des propriétés des matériaux composites en fonction de la qualité pariétale, et une projection de l'environnement de l’artère dans l’outil de simulation. Nos résultats ont été validés grâce à un recalage entre les données cliniques et notre simulation pour un groupe donné de patients, dont les artères sont très tortueuses et calcifiées. Cet outil d’aide à l’acte chirurgical permet de contrôler avec précision la navigation endovasculaire en péropératoire, prédire la faisabilité de la chirurgie avec une fiabilité ainsi que d’optimiser le nombre d’outils métalliques pour chaque patient, en tenant compte du risque de rupture des zones avec fortes tortuosités et hétérogénéités. / We have developed a numerical model of the treatment of abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAA) using finite element analysis (FEA) to simulate the endovascular procedure in the preoperative phase. The goal is to simulate different stages of the endovascular procedure. In the model, we took into account the geometry of the biological region reconstructed from scans, a local characterization of the guidewire/catheter mechanical properties, a mapping of material properties depending on the degree of calcification, and a projection of the aorta environment . Our results were validated based on a tuning between clinical data and our simulation for a given group of patients with very tortuous and calcified arteries. It allows to control with accuracy the delivery system rise during surgery, predict the feasibility of the surgery with reliability as well as choose the best guide for each patient, taking into account the risk of rupture of calcified areas in the case of high angulations.

This work includes the development of computational fluid dynamic (CFD) and finite element analysis (FEA) models to investigate fluid flow , solidification, and stress in the shell within the mold during continuous casting. The flow and solidification simulation is validated using breakout shell measurements provided by an industrial collaborator. The shell can be obtained by the solidification model and used in a FEA stress model. The stress model was validated by former research related to stress within a solidifying body presented by Koric and Thomas. The work also includes the application of these two models with a transient solidification model and a carbon percentage investigation on both solidification and deformation.

<p dir="ltr">The brain is a dynamic tissue that is passively driven by a combination of the cardiac cycle, respiration, and slow wave oscillations. The function of the brain relies on its ability to maintain a normal homeostatic balance between its mechanical environment and metabolic demands, which can be greatly altered in the cases of neurodegeneration or traumatic brain injury. It has been a challenge in the field to quantify the dynamics of the tissue and cerebrospinal fluid flow in human subjects on a patient-specific basis over the many spatial and temporal scales that it relies upon. Non-invasive imaging tools like structural, functional, and dynamic MRI sequences provide modern researchers with an unprecedented view into the human brain. Our work leverages these sequences by developing novel, open-source pipelines to 1) quantify the biomechanical environment of the brain tissue over 133 functional brain regions, and 2) estimate real-time cerebrospinal fluid velocity from flow artifacts on functional MRI by employing breathing regimens to enhance fluid motion. These pipelines provide a comprehensive view of the macroscale tissue and fluid motion in a given patient. Additionally, we sought to understand how the transmission of macroscale forces, in the context of traumatic brain injury, contribute to neuronal damage by 3) developing a digital twin to simulate 30-200 g-force loading of 2D neuronal cultures and observing the morphological and electrophysiological consequences of these impacts in vitro by our collaborators. Taken together, we believe these works are a steppingstone that will enable future researchers to deeply understand the mechanical contributions that underly clinical neurological outcomes and perhaps lead to the development of earlier diagnostics, which is of dire need in the case of neurodegenerative diseases.</p>

No description available.

Os elementos ópticos difrativos representam um mercado em franco crescimento, da ordem de bilhões de dólares. Seu uso ostensivo está nos microeletrônicos, sistemas de iluminação, telecomunicações, equipamentos de segurança e outros. Por isso, esta tese teve como objetivo realizar investigação pública profunda no assunto. Insertos de cobre eletrolítico foram usados por proporcionar excelente acabamento superficial quando usinados com ferramenta de diamante monocristalino obtendo valores de Ra = 10,2 nm, Rq = 13,56 e Rt = 363,06 µm e para o aço inoxidável polido os resultados foram de Ra = 7,02 nm, Rq = 9,05 nm e Rt = 225,19 nm. As réplicas foram construídas em PMMA - DH ECL P com transmitância da luz avaliada em aproximadamente 90% em todo o espectro visível e infravermelho. Foram produzidos sete tipos de microelementos ópticos difrativos, baseados na geometria de Fresnel e nos arranjos de microlentes esféricas. Foi necessário desenvolver o código computacional denominado LF2010 para auxiliar a construção do projeto das microlentes anesféricas de Fresnel e calcular sua modulação de fase. Quatro processos determinísticos na fabricação dos µEODs foram usados: torneamento de ultraprecisão com ferramenta de diamante, microforjamento, microfresamento e a combinação dos dois últimos. O método estocástico de polimento foi usado para gerar acabamento óptico e compará-lo ao torneamento com SPDT. As análises metrológicas qualitativas e dimensionais foram conduzidas com o uso do MEV e da perfilometria óptica. No torneamento de ultraprecisão com ferramenta de diamante foi comprovada a presença do fenômeno conhecido como \"stick slip\" nos degraus da zona de Fresnel, corrigidos alterando-se o projeto. Para os arranjos de empacotamento completo os valores da rugosidade foram mais elevados em função da interatividade das lentes adjacentes do conjunto com \'fi\' = 100%, chegando até mesmo a causar microfraturas na estrutura das microlentes. Após sucessivos processos de calibragem, foram manufaturadas as réplicas pelas técnicas de termomoldagem e moldagem por injeção. Os resultados de replicação das microlentes mostraram que a razão de aspecto e a relação superfície/volume influenciaram significativamente na fidelidade de replicação das microlentes, sendo constatado que as lentes de Fresnel com altura variável possuem maior volume em relação às de altura constante e, consequentemente, melhor fidelidade na replicação. Na termomoldagem, as variações nas dimensões das cristas foram de nanômetros e a fidelidade no processo foi de aproximadamente 100% para todas as zonas de Fresnel. Nesta técnica, porém, os tempos de ciclos são até 40 vezes maiores que os da moldagem por injeção. As investigações paraxiais de FTM para a microlente de Fresnel com altura variável convexa foram de 85,2 % para 25 lp/mm, 67,5% para 50 lp/mm e 71,2% para 75 lp/mm. A simulação por elementos finitos foi usada para auxiliar nos estudos conferindo a sensibilidade do método de cálculo numérico do simulador nas escalas macroscópicas e microscópicas. No final, investigado o desgaste da aresta de corte da ferramenta, verificou-se o desgaste de flanco e a formação da APC, constituída de partículas do cavaco de cobre com formação lamelar. Conclui-se que é possível reproduzir diversos tipos de µEODs com métodos de produção em massa da moldagem por injeção tomando-se cuidado com as variáveis do processo, geometria da peça e propriedades físicas e químicas do material a ser replicado. / Diffractive optical elements represent a fast growing market, in order of billions dollars. Its use is employed in microelectronics, illumination systems, telecommunications, security devices, and others. For this reason, this thesis aimed to make depth public research in the subject. Electrolytic copper inserts were used for providing excellent surface finish when machined with monocrystalline diamond tool getting values of Ra = 10,2 nm, Rq = 13,56 e Rt = 363,06 µm, for the polished stainless steel the results were Ra = 7,02 nm, Rq = 9,05 nm e Rt = 225,19 nm. The replicas were built in PMMA - DH ECL P with light transmittance approximately 90% for visible and infrared spectrum. Seven types of diffractive optical microelements were produced, based in Fresnel geometry and spherical microlens array. For this, it was necessary to develop the computer code called LF2010 to support the construction design of aspheric Fresnel microlenses and calculate its phase transformation function. Four deterministic manufacturing processes of µDOEs were used: ultraprecision diamond turning, microforging, micromilling and the combination of the two last. Stochastic method of polishing was used to obtain mirror surface roughness and compare to SPDT. The qualitative analysis and dimensional metrology were conducted using MEV and optical profiling system respectively. In ultraprecision diamond turning has proved the presence of the phenomenon known as stick slip on the steps of Fresnel zone that was corrected by changing the design. For complete packaging arrays the roughness values were higher due the interaction of adjacent lenses of set with \'fi\' = 100% have even cause microfractures in the structure of microlenses. After successive calibration procedures in the manufacture of copper inserts, replicas were fabricated by techniques of hot emboss and injection molding. The results of microlenses replication showed that the aspect ratio and surface/volume ratio affected the fidelity replication of microlenses, and had been noted that the Fresnel lenses with variable height have higher volume in relation to constant height and consequently better fidelity in replication. Hot emboss process show little variations in the dimensions of the crests, in order of few nanometers, resulting a fidelity approximately 100% for all zones of Fresnel, however the cycle\'s technique are up to 40 times higher than injection molding. The paraxial FTM analysis shows 85,2% for 25 lp/mm, 67,5% for 50 lp/mm and 71,2% for 75 lp/mm to convex Fresnel microlens with variable height. Finite element analysis was used to aid in the studies giving the sensitivity of numerical method adopted in terms of macroscale and microscale. In the end, the wear of edge cutting tool was investigated and found wear flank and formation of built up edge that was made up of chip particles of copper, witch were formed continuously with segmented structure lamellar. Hence, after numerous studies and analysis we can conclude that it is possible to construct µDOEs by means of mass production methods of injection molding taking care of process variables, part geometry and physical and chemical properties of material being replicated.

Os elementos ópticos difrativos representam um mercado em franco crescimento, da ordem de bilhões de dólares. Seu uso ostensivo está nos microeletrônicos, sistemas de iluminação, telecomunicações, equipamentos de segurança e outros. Por isso, esta tese teve como objetivo realizar investigação pública profunda no assunto. Insertos de cobre eletrolítico foram usados por proporcionar excelente acabamento superficial quando usinados com ferramenta de diamante monocristalino obtendo valores de Ra = 10,2 nm, Rq = 13,56 e Rt = 363,06 µm e para o aço inoxidável polido os resultados foram de Ra = 7,02 nm, Rq = 9,05 nm e Rt = 225,19 nm. As réplicas foram construídas em PMMA - DH ECL P com transmitância da luz avaliada em aproximadamente 90% em todo o espectro visível e infravermelho. Foram produzidos sete tipos de microelementos ópticos difrativos, baseados na geometria de Fresnel e nos arranjos de microlentes esféricas. Foi necessário desenvolver o código computacional denominado LF2010 para auxiliar a construção do projeto das microlentes anesféricas de Fresnel e calcular sua modulação de fase. Quatro processos determinísticos na fabricação dos µEODs foram usados: torneamento de ultraprecisão com ferramenta de diamante, microforjamento, microfresamento e a combinação dos dois últimos. O método estocástico de polimento foi usado para gerar acabamento óptico e compará-lo ao torneamento com SPDT. As análises metrológicas qualitativas e dimensionais foram conduzidas com o uso do MEV e da perfilometria óptica. No torneamento de ultraprecisão com ferramenta de diamante foi comprovada a presença do fenômeno conhecido como \"stick slip\" nos degraus da zona de Fresnel, corrigidos alterando-se o projeto. Para os arranjos de empacotamento completo os valores da rugosidade foram mais elevados em função da interatividade das lentes adjacentes do conjunto com \'fi\' = 100%, chegando até mesmo a causar microfraturas na estrutura das microlentes. Após sucessivos processos de calibragem, foram manufaturadas as réplicas pelas técnicas de termomoldagem e moldagem por injeção. Os resultados de replicação das microlentes mostraram que a razão de aspecto e a relação superfície/volume influenciaram significativamente na fidelidade de replicação das microlentes, sendo constatado que as lentes de Fresnel com altura variável possuem maior volume em relação às de altura constante e, consequentemente, melhor fidelidade na replicação. Na termomoldagem, as variações nas dimensões das cristas foram de nanômetros e a fidelidade no processo foi de aproximadamente 100% para todas as zonas de Fresnel. Nesta técnica, porém, os tempos de ciclos são até 40 vezes maiores que os da moldagem por injeção. As investigações paraxiais de FTM para a microlente de Fresnel com altura variável convexa foram de 85,2 % para 25 lp/mm, 67,5% para 50 lp/mm e 71,2% para 75 lp/mm. A simulação por elementos finitos foi usada para auxiliar nos estudos conferindo a sensibilidade do método de cálculo numérico do simulador nas escalas macroscópicas e microscópicas. No final, investigado o desgaste da aresta de corte da ferramenta, verificou-se o desgaste de flanco e a formação da APC, constituída de partículas do cavaco de cobre com formação lamelar. Conclui-se que é possível reproduzir diversos tipos de µEODs com métodos de produção em massa da moldagem por injeção tomando-se cuidado com as variáveis do processo, geometria da peça e propriedades físicas e químicas do material a ser replicado. / Diffractive optical elements represent a fast growing market, in order of billions dollars. Its use is employed in microelectronics, illumination systems, telecommunications, security devices, and others. For this reason, this thesis aimed to make depth public research in the subject. Electrolytic copper inserts were used for providing excellent surface finish when machined with monocrystalline diamond tool getting values of Ra = 10,2 nm, Rq = 13,56 e Rt = 363,06 µm, for the polished stainless steel the results were Ra = 7,02 nm, Rq = 9,05 nm e Rt = 225,19 nm. The replicas were built in PMMA - DH ECL P with light transmittance approximately 90% for visible and infrared spectrum. Seven types of diffractive optical microelements were produced, based in Fresnel geometry and spherical microlens array. For this, it was necessary to develop the computer code called LF2010 to support the construction design of aspheric Fresnel microlenses and calculate its phase transformation function. Four deterministic manufacturing processes of µDOEs were used: ultraprecision diamond turning, microforging, micromilling and the combination of the two last. Stochastic method of polishing was used to obtain mirror surface roughness and compare to SPDT. The qualitative analysis and dimensional metrology were conducted using MEV and optical profiling system respectively. In ultraprecision diamond turning has proved the presence of the phenomenon known as stick slip on the steps of Fresnel zone that was corrected by changing the design. For complete packaging arrays the roughness values were higher due the interaction of adjacent lenses of set with \'fi\' = 100% have even cause microfractures in the structure of microlenses. After successive calibration procedures in the manufacture of copper inserts, replicas were fabricated by techniques of hot emboss and injection molding. The results of microlenses replication showed that the aspect ratio and surface/volume ratio affected the fidelity replication of microlenses, and had been noted that the Fresnel lenses with variable height have higher volume in relation to constant height and consequently better fidelity in replication. Hot emboss process show little variations in the dimensions of the crests, in order of few nanometers, resulting a fidelity approximately 100% for all zones of Fresnel, however the cycle\'s technique are up to 40 times higher than injection molding. The paraxial FTM analysis shows 85,2% for 25 lp/mm, 67,5% for 50 lp/mm and 71,2% for 75 lp/mm to convex Fresnel microlens with variable height. Finite element analysis was used to aid in the studies giving the sensitivity of numerical method adopted in terms of macroscale and microscale. In the end, the wear of edge cutting tool was investigated and found wear flank and formation of built up edge that was made up of chip particles of copper, witch were formed continuously with segmented structure lamellar. Hence, after numerous studies and analysis we can conclude that it is possible to construct µDOEs by means of mass production methods of injection molding taking care of process variables, part geometry and physical and chemical properties of material being replicated.