Este trabalho descreve os principais mecanismos financeiros de estímulo às exportações disponíveis no Brasil e estima o impacto dos financiamentos sobre a rentabilidade das empresas. Os mecanismos financeiros de estímulo às exportações disponíveis são quatro: a) financiamentos com base em contratos de câmbio; b) o Programa de Financiamento às Exportações – PROEX; c) o Programa BNDES-Exim ; e d) o Seguro de Crédito à Exportação – SCE. Os financiamentos com base em contrato de câmbio são realizados com recursos privados captados no exterior e operacionalizados de três diferentes formas: a) Adiantamento sobre Contrato de Câmbio - ACC; b) Adiantamento sobre Cambiais Entregues – ACE; e c) Trava de Câmbio. Nos dois primeiros instrumentos, o exportador recebe um adiantamento com base no contrato de câmbio, enquanto que no caso da trava de câmbio o exportador empresta a importância do contravalor em moeda nacional do contrato de câmbio de exportação ao banco. Por meio da comparação das taxas de juros cobradas no mercado doméstico com as taxas de juros dos financiamentos à exportação, próximas às taxas internacionais, para cada uma das modalidades de financiamento, é estimado, em termos globais, o ganho de arbitragem que as empresas envolvidas com as exportações brasileiras obtêm, utilizando os financiamentos a eles disponibilizados.

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This thesis looks at policy formulation in a Revenue Office over the nine-year period, from 1984 to 1993. It presents a case study that is based on actual events; but, because of the difficulties in reporting on the events in a large organisation without the possible influence of some staff, particularly senior management, it was decided to change the names of the organisation, the people and policies. The thesis is based on an examination of a number of policy initiatives that were 'quilted' together. Its focus is not on the contents of the policies or primarily on their economic success, but on the bureaucratic and stakeholder processes involved in their formulation. The purpose of the thesis is to provide a way of understanding events in organisations that are portrayed or categorised by research as policy formulation. Policy formulation is considered to be a core process in organisations, but it is still poorly understood or explained by current models, particularly those based on a rationalistic view of the world. Many of these models have their roots in economic theory and rationality, which promotes the idea that policy is a fundamental and almost inevitable part of organisation goal attainment. These ideas permeate and structure the theory and depiction of organisations and, hence, the way we understand the nature of the social actions and interactions supporting policy formulation. The thesis rejects the assertion that organisations move in a consistently calculated and logical direction based on goal setting and developing policies to meet objectives. An alternative view is proposed: that policy formulation must be understood within the phenomenon of an organisation where people enact a particular form of social reality. Under this model organisations are created and maintained by social processes that are continually executed by people. In this context, individuals and groups use processes of negotiation and power to manipulate and re-define the meanings attributed to problems and solutions to maintain a perception of consistent and coordinated change and goal attainment in policy formulation. This social practice is an attempt to define reality and maintain legitimacy for the policy changes. Thus, the emphasis is on social processes rather than outcomes, thereby focusing on the development and maintenance of perceptions of problems and solutions. This thesis analyses policy formulation as a distinctive kind of social practice using a case study of policy developments in a revenue office, as a means of explaining the basic nature of ongoing corporate life. The case study explores the way that core revenue office policies, proposed as 'logical' change, were formulated by individuals and groups who constantly used 'legitimising' management models and principles, agenda management, and bargaining and power processes to negotiate, influence, modify and manipulate the perceptions of change. The aim is to explain how policy options were generated in the 'Charisma period', to examine their origins and how they were acted upon, and to develop a set of summary concepts that might be used to understand policy development behaviours. / Master of Commerce (Hons)

Fiscal federalism is meant to benefit from both the advantages of centralization and decentralization in public revenues and expenditures, the optimal allocation of competencies between levels of governement depending on the nature of revenues, public goods or services. For historical, political or practical reasons, this optimal allocation is not always attainable. Therefore, fiscal federalism may raise new issues in efficiency or equity, in the form of spill-over effects, harmful fiscal competition or fiscal imbalance. To tend to the optimum, it is necessary to evaluate the extent of inefficiencies or inequities and to design corrective mechanisms in order to minimize them. This thesis adopts such an approach in four different situations. First, we measure empirically and dynamically the presence of fiscal competition between Belgian municipalities. The analysis reveals the existence of fiscal competition, but with a rather slow pace of adjustment of taxe rates over time. This pace depends on the mobility of tax bases and on the similarity of neighboring municipalities with respect to some socio-economic characteristics. Second, we evaluate the effects of the Belgian fiscal equalization mechanism on equity. This analysis shows the existence of a poverty trap at the level of regions and proposes a range of solutions, inspired by equalization mechanisms applied in other federal States. Third, we analyse the case of multiple States emitting multiple pollutants where a trade-off exists between producing goods and minimizing pollution. We propose a form of inter-State transfers such that all States adopt a behaviour leading to the collective optimum. To be sustainable, the collective optimum must be individually rational. We show that this condition is respected with the proposed transfer formula. Fourth, we examine the case of harmful fiscal competition between two countries differing in size, the small country being seen as a fiscal heaven. In order to reach the collective optimum, fiscal cooperation is needed. To convince the tax heaven to cooperate, a specific formula of transfers between the large and the small country is proposed, such that both countries are better off. / Le fédéralisme fiscal a pour objectif de bénéficier à la fois des avantages de la centralisation et des avantages de la décentralisation des revenus et dépenses publiques. La répartition optimale des compétences entre différents niveaux de pouvoir est déterminée par la nature des revenus, dépenses et biens et services publics. Pour des raisons historiques, politiques ou pratiques, cette répartition optimale n'est pas toujours accessible. En conséquence, les avantages du fédéralisme fiscal peuvent s'accompagner de problèmes d'efficacité ou d'équité sous la forme d'effets de débordement, de concurrence fiscale dommageable ou de déséquilibre fiscal. Pour tendre vers l'optimum, il convient dès lors d'évaluer l'ampleur des inefficacités et inéquités et de concevoir des mécanismes correctifs pour les atténuer. Cette thèse applique cette démarche à quatre situations particulières. Premièrement, nous mesurons la présence de concurrence fiscale entre les communes belges, de façon empirique et dynamique. L'analyse met en lumière l'existence d'une concurrence fiscale certaine, mais avec une vitesse d'ajustement des taux de taxation relativement faible dans le temps. Cette vitesse d'ajustement dépend de la mobilité des bases imposables et de la similitude des communes voisines en termes de caractéristiques socio-économiques. Deuxièmement, nous évaluons les effets redistributifs et incitatifs du mécanisme belge de péréquation financière. Cette analyse démontre la présence d'un effet de « piège à pauvreté » au niveau des Régions et propose une série de solutions pour y remédier, en s'inspirant de mécanismes étrangers. Troisièmement, nous analysons le cas de multiples Etats émettant de multiples polluants, dans un contexte où un arbitrage doit être effectué entre la production de biens et la minimisation de la pollution. Nous proposons une forme de transferts à appliquer entre Etats de sorte que tous les Etats sont amenés à adopter un comportement menant à l'optimum collectif. Pour être soutenable, l'optimum collectif doit être individuellement rationnel. Nous démontrons que la formule proposée respecte cette condition. Quatrièmement, nous examinons le cas d'une concurrence fiscale dommageable entre deux pays différents en taille, où le petit pays peut être considéré comme un paradis fiscal. Afin d'atteindre l'optimum collectif, une coopération fiscale est nécessaire. Afin de convaincre le paradis fiscal de coopérer, une forme spécifique de transferts entre le grand et le petit pays est proposée, de sorte que tous deux préfèrent coopérer.

El presente trabajo de investigación tiene el propósito de evaluar los resultados de los 15 años de aplicación de la Ley Nº 1551 de Participación Popular, en el marco de la “descentralización, gestión y poder político local”, pero principalmente, desde la perspectiva de los objetivos de desarrollo definidas en la propia norma, este objetivo es: “Mejorar la calidad de vida de la mujer y el hombre boliviano, con una más justa distribución y mejor administración de los recursos públicos”, identificar sus limitaciones y realizar propuestas de mecanismos e instrumentos, para mejorar la eficacia en el cumplimiento de los objetivos de desarrollo en un escenario de proceso de descentralización hacia gobiernos subnacionales autónomos.

This dissertation seeks to investigate the relationship between public sector employment and fiscal decentralization. We develop a theoretical model that helps us understand the interaction of the central executive's and subnational governor's decisions on the level of public employees at the central and subnational levels. Our empirical work shows that fiscal decentralization policy shifts central government employees to the subnational government level and that the increase in public employees at the subnational government level overwhelms the decrease in public employees at the central level. As a result, the level of total public sector employees increases with the degree of fiscal decentralization of a country. We also find that the levels of total public sector employees as a percentage of population are higher in unitary country systems than those in federal countries. The level of public employment also increases with the degree of urbanization and with the exposure to risk of a country. This is a somewhat surprising result. Typically, more public employment is associated with an excessive number of public sector employees, and, therefore, with unproductive spending. On the other hand, fiscal decentralization policy has been generally thought to result in an increase in allocative efficiency, since a decision on public expenditures made by a level of government that is closer and more responsive to a local constituency is more likely to reflect the demand for local services than a decision made by a remote central government. In addition, decentralization has been thought of as having the potential of improving competition among governments and of facilitating technical innovations. Therefore, one might expect that fiscal decentralization should help to retrench the public sector employment. However, from our empirical result, we find that subnational governors without taking full responsibility for subnational public finance tend to bloat the levels of subnational government employees and ask the central government to pay the bill. As a result, the level of total public sector employees increases with fiscal decentralization policy. These findings are much in line with Oates' and Wallis' anticipated results, but they are based on different explanations. Employing the two most commonly used spatial dependency tests, Moran's I and Getis and Ord's G statistics, we also find evidence of spatial dependency in terms of the level of public sector employees as a percentage of population among the countries in our dataset. This finding suggests that while using a country's own domestic variables to explain the level of public sector employment, we should not ignore that the neighboring countries' policies also play an important role in determining it.

Los modelos de microsimulación de impuestos y subsidios sociales son instrumentos de análisis económico que permiten estudiar los efectos que las políticas fiscales tienen sobre la población. Para ello, utilizan bases de micro-datos con información detallada de individuos de una muestra que es representativa de la población estudiada. Al mismo tiempo, estos modelos simulan en detalle y de forma flexible cómo políticas fiscales (o su reforma) afectan la renta disponible de cada individuo. La combinación del uso de bases de micro-datos y el detalle de las simulaciones hacen de la microsimulación un instrumento riguroso y minucioso para el estudio de las políticas y las reformas fiscales tanto para la medición de agregados presupuestarios (gasto público o recaudación), como para la medición de efectos más complejos como la distribución de la renta, la pobreza, o los incentivos a decisiones económicas. Este trabajo desarrolla y utiliza el primer modelo integrado de microsimulación de impuestos y subsidios sociales para España - ESPASIM. Este modelo simula en detalle y de forma integrada el sistema fiscal español, y es comparable tanto en el alcance como en la fiabilidad de sus simulaciones a modelos de otros países con mayor tradición y experiencia en la microsimulación. El modelo español también ha sido integrado dentro modelo de microsimulación a escala europea - EUROMOD. EUROMOD fue desarrollado por 18 instituciones de los 15 países de la Unión Europea. Se trata de un instrumento capaz de llevar a cabo estudios comparados sobre sistemas fiscales de diferentes países usando una estructura común y consistente, y de analizar las políticas desde una perspectiva Europea. Esta tesis aplica ambos modelos en el estudio de dos reformas fiscales recientemente implementadas en España. La primera aplicación utiliza ESPASIM para analizar los efectos de la reforma del impuesto sobre la renta de las personas físicas de 1998 sobre la simplicidad. Los resultados obtenidos con ESPASIM demuestran que la reforma sólo alcanza parcialmente sus objetivos y que estos podrían ser mejorados con la eliminación de la declaración conjunta y de otras fuentes de diferencias entre el sistema de retenciones y la función impositiva de la declaración de la renta.La segunda aplicación utiliza EUROMOD para comparar las políticas de protección social a la familia utilizadas en España con las de otros países de la Unión Europea. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que España gasta significativamente menos en la protección familia y que dicho gasto tiene unos efectos de reducción de la desigualdad y de la pobreza muy inferiores al de los demás países estudiados. Los resultados con EUROMOD también demuestran que las recientes reformas han incrementado el gasto en políticas familiares, pero el impacto sobre la desigualdad y la pobreza se mantiene inalterado. Si España reformase sus políticas familiares equiparándolas a la de los demás países estudiados, manteniendo el nivel de gasto actual, la desigualdad y la pobreza disminuirían significativamente. / Tax-benefit microsimulation models are instruments of economic analysis that allow us to study the effects of fiscal reforms on the population. These models use micro-data with detailed individual information that is representative of the studied population. On the other hand, these models simulate in detail and with flexibility how fiscal policies (or their reform) affect the disposable income of each individual. The combination of micro-data and detailed simulation make microsimulation models a rigorous and comprehensive instrument to study fiscal policies and fiscal reforms. They are powerful tools measuring budget aggregates (such as public expenditure or revenue), as well as more detailed effects such as income distribution, poverty or incentives.This work develops and uses the first integrated tax-benefit microsimulation model for Spain - ESPASIM. This model simulates in detail the Spanish fiscal system and is comparable in terms of scope and reliability of simulation to the models of countries with greater tradition and experience in microsimulation. The Spanish model is also integrated within a European microsimulation framework - EUROMOD. EUROMOD is a multi-country microsimulation model developed by 18 institutions of the EU-15 countries. This instrument allows us to carry out international comparative studies on fiscal systems, as well as analyse policies from a European perspective.This thesis applies both models to study two reforms recently implemented in Spain. The first application used ESPASIM to analyse the effects of the 1998 personal income tax reform on simplicity. Results obtained using the Spanish microsimulation model suggest that the reform only partially achieves its objectives. The study also shows that significant improvements in terms of simplicity could be achieved with the elimination sources of differences between the withholding and the income tax function. The second application uses EUROMOD to compare the Spanish child-related benefits to those used in other countries from the European Union. Results demonstrate that the expenditure level and the poverty and inequality reduction effects of these benefits are significantly lower in Spain than in other analysed countries. The simulations with the European model also show that recent reforms in Spain have considerably increased social expenditure child benefits. However, this increase has not produced any change in terms of poverty or inequality reduction. On the other hand, if Spain had reformed it's policies making them similar to those from other EU countries, the inequality and poverty would fall significantly even under a expenditure-neutral constraint.

Research on the Strategies That Can Improve the Financial Autonomy of Kaohsiung County Abstract Local autonomy is the foundation of democracy, and finance is the basis of government administration. Before local autonomy can be put into practice, a local government must have the legal right to finance. In order to improve the autonomy of local finance, the central government has enacted ¡§General Guideline for Local Taxation¡¨ and ¡§Law on Imposed Fees,¡¨ and the revised draft of the Financial Separation of Revenues and Expenditures Law was submitted to the Legislature for review and discussion. In other words, in the future, the central government will guarantee the basic financial needs of local governments, but local governments must resort to themselves to respond to their respective development and needs in other aspects. This will pose very harsh challenges and burdens to any local government. This is especially true when the financial sources for administrative districts are usually not sufficient. So how to improve the financial autonomy of local governments will be a major topic we will have to deal with. Literature review, analysis of secondary data, and in-depth interviews were conducted to collect financial statistics of government agencies, pertinent to the financial conditions of Kaohsiung County. Interviews of financial chiefs were also conducted to analyze and investigate issues on the system dimension and on the practical dimension. It was found that the central and the local government must work closely before the financial problems of Kaohsiung County can be solved. The things that the central government should do include: canceling the fixed-proportions distribution of over-the-board allocated tax money, revising the calculation of basic financial revenues, canceling inappropriate measures of tax deductions, and establishing statutory subsidy systems. The local government should work to increase the sources of finance, including making good use of ¡§General Guideline for Local Taxation¡¨ and ¡§Law on Imposed Fees,¡¨ improving management of public properties, adjusting tax base of property, setting into motion public facilities, and implementing land re-divisions and sectional buy-up. With regard to saving, the local government should downsize the personnel expenditures, make good use of resources of the private sector, encourage private sector¡¦s participation in investment, and privatize public services. The implementation of local autonomy depends on sound local finances. In the wake of the present difficult public financial conditions, local governments should follow the spirit of ¡§Help oneself before others come to help¡¨ so as to elevate their responsibility and financial autonomy in the future. Only through this method can financial problems be solved effectively.

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