Introdução: O tratamento hormonal para amenizar sintomas do climatério é bem conhecido, mas nem sempre pode ser indicado para grande parte das mulheres. Por estes motivos, tem-se testado várias opções de tratamento não hormonal, cujos resultados nem sempre são satisfatórios e conclusivos. Objetivo: Avaliar a eficácia da cinarizina no tratamento dos sintomas climatéricos. Casuística e método: Foram estudadas prospectivamente 62 mulheres climatéricas sintomáticas com predomínio de ondas de calor que preencheram os critérios de inclusão e exclusão com idade variando de 45 a 60 anos, as quais foram avaliadas pelo Índice Menopausal de Kupperman (IMK), e atendidas no Setor de Ginecologia Endócrina e Climatério do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Foram divididas aleatoriamente em dois grupos: S com 27 pacientes (25 mg de Cinarizina a cada 12 hs, v.o., por 6 meses) e M com 35 pacientes (1 comprimido de placebo a cada 12hs, v.o., por 6 meses). Resultados: No grupo S a média etária foi 53,9 anos; 51,9% brancas e 48,1% negras; e no grupo M a média etária foi de 54,7 anos; 51,4% brancas e 48,6% negras. Os níveis pressóricos e o índice de massa corpórea foram semelhantes, entre os grupos. A análise do IMK e suas variantes comparativamente nos grupos S e M nos tempos 0 e 1 foi p=0,235 e p=0,406, respectivamente. Conclusões: A cinarizina foi semelhante ao placebo no alívio dos sintomas do climatério avaliados pelo IMK. Houve melhora significante do sintoma vertigem nas pacientes que receberam cinarizina. / Introduction: The hormonal treatment for relief of climateric symptoms is well-known but most women can not be treated with homones. For this reason several treatments without hormones has been evaluated with no conclusive results yet. Objective: Evaluate the efficacy of cinnarizine in the treatment of climacteric symptoms. Casuistry and Method: Were prospectively studied 62 symptomatic climacteric women with prevalence of hot flashes who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria aged from 45 to 60 years, evaluated by Kupperman\'s Menopause Index (KMI) attended at the Sector of Endocrinology Gynecology and Climacteric from the Medical School of the Hospital das Clinicas of the University of São Paulo. The subjects were divided alleatory in two: 27 patients Group S (Cinnarizine 25mg every 12h) and Group M with 35 (1 Placebo each 12h). Results: In group S the mean age was 53.9 years; 51.9% white and 48.1% black; and in group M the mean age was 54.7 years; 51.4% white and 48.6% black. Blood pressure levels and body mass index were similar in both groups. The analysis of the KMI and their variables comparision betwen groups (S and M) at time 0 and 1 was p=0.235 and p=0.406 respectively. Conclusions: Cinnarizine was similar to placebo for recipe of climacteric symptoms evaluated by KMI. There was significant improvement of symptom vertigo in patients treated with cinnarizine.

Negative cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning flashes transport negative charge from cloud to ground. Negative ground flashes typically involve various processes identified as preliminary breakdown, stepped leader, return stroke, dart leader, dart-stepped leader, subsequent return stroke, and cloud activity between strokes, such as regular pulse trains and chaotic pulse trains. These processes can be identified through their electromagnetic field signatures. The main focus of this thesis is to document the features and understand the origin of electromagnetic fields, especially the chaotic pulse trains, generated by lightning flashes. Electric field measurements have been used to study lightning flashes in Sweden. The equipment was a parallel flat plate antenna with an analog filter buffer circuit, connected to a digital high speed oscilloscope. Four simultaneous measurements were made: wideband measurement of the E-field (the vertical component) and its time derivative dE/dt, and two narrowband measurements of the E-field, centred around 3 MHz and 30 MHz. Fourier and wavelet transforms were used in the analysis of the measured data. The results show that preliminary breakdown pulses are stronger radiators at 3 MHz and 30 MHz than are the return strokes. A comparison of our results with those of previous studies obtained in different geographical regions clearly shows that the strength of preliminary breakdown pulses decreases with decreasing latitude. It is higher in the temperate regions (Sweden, for instance) and lower in the tropical regions. A comparison of the time derivatives of preliminary breakdown pulses and of the narrow bipolar pulses shows that the physical origin of these two types of pulse is different, even though they may have similar appearances in the broadband fields. This thesis introduces a new procedure to estimate the zero-crossing time of the lightning-generated radiation fields. The procedure is based on the fact that the time integral of the radiation fields generated by a discharge event whose duration is finite is equal to zero, and the zero-crossing time corresponds to the time when the peak of the integral is reached. In addition to tabulating the various statistical parameters and features of Chaotic Pulse Trains (CPTs), it is shown that these pulse trains are created by the simultaneous propagation of several dart-stepped leader type discharges in the cloud. Each dart-stepped leader type discharge generates a Regular Pulse Train (RPT), and these pulse trains combine randomly in time to generate CPTs. This conclusion is based on the results obtained by numerical simulations and by analysing the signatures of these pulse trains using Fourier and wavelet transformations. The results presented in this thesis show that electromagnetic fields, even those measured from a single station, can be used to extract information concerning the physical processes that gave rise to these fields.

Το θέμα της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς απαγωγέων υπερτάσεων (SPD), όταν αυτοί αποτελούν μέρος του εσωτερικού συστήματος αντικεραυνικής προστασίας για μια οικιακή εγκατάσταση. Αρχικά γίνεται μια αναφορά στα αίτια δημιουργίας κρουστικών υπερτάσεων στο δίκτυο διανομής, ενώ στη συνέχεια δίνεται έμφαση στις υπερτάσεις που προκαλούνται από άμεσα ή έμμεσα κεραυνικά πλήγματα στο σύστημα. Στα πλαίσια της μελέτης δημιουργήθηκε ένα μοντέλο προσομοίωσης που αναπαριστά ένα δίκτυο χαμηλής τάσης TN-C-S με δύο πανομοιότυπους οικιακούς καταναλωτές, όσον αφορά τη δομή της εσωτερικής ηλεκτρικής εγκατάστασής τους παρουσία ή μη διατάξεων αντικεραυνικής προστασίας. Σκοπός της προκειμένης μελέτης είναι να δειχθεί η βέλτιστη συνδεσμολογία των διατάξεων προστασίας μέσα σε εσωτερικές ηλεκτρικές εγκαταστάσεις έτσι ώστε να αποτρέπεται η ανάπτυξη επικίνδυνων τάσεων και ρευμάτων για τον άνθρωπο και τον εξοπλισμό της οικιακής εγκατάστασης. / The subject of this project is a study upon the dynamic performance of surge arresters as a part of the internal lightning protection system for a residential electrical installation. At first, a reference about the actions or the natural phenomena that cause surge overvoltages in low voltage systems is given in detail and is followed by an essential theoretical approach on the lighning phenomenon. Both the causes, the consequences and the conditions in which a lightning occurs are being analysed. Furthermore, the characteristics and the qualifications a Lightning Protection System needs to comply with, are given, according to the Greek Standard ΕΛΟΤ-1197 and the European Standards IEC 62305-2, IEC 61643-12. Along with writing this essay, a simulation model using Simulink-Matlab was produced. The model represents a LV TN-C-S system that distributes power to two households with identical internal electrical installation. The aim of the present study is to indicate the optimal connection of the surge protective devices (SPDs) in the domestic electrical installation in order to prevent the appearance of potentially dangerous overvoltages to the humans or to the household equipment.

This thesis focuses on the main processes in positive ground flashes and the distant lightning environment for both positive and negative ground flashes. It presents the characteristics of the preliminary breakdown pulses (PBPs), the characteristics of the electric field pulses observed during leader propagation, and the characteristics of the electric fields produced by the first and the subsequent return strokes. It also features the observations of distant positive and negative ground flashes at distances up to 1000 km. The results were based on electric field measurements conducted remotely during summer thunderstorms in Sweden in 2014. We found that the majority of the positive ground flashes were preceded by PBPs. Some were preceded by more than one PBP train, and the parameter values for the subsequent PBP trains were found to be smaller than the values for the first PBP train. Three types of PBPs were also identified. The results suggest that the PBPs in positive ground flashes during summer thunderstorms in Sweden are weak, and the inverted dipole charge cloud configuration is consistent with our observation. A small percentage of these positive ground flashes were observed to be preceded by pronounced leader pulses. The presence of these pulses suggests that the leaders propagate in a stepped manner. We inferred that these pulses were due to the upward-connecting negative leader since their characteristics were similar to those of a negative stepped leader. On the basis of the leader pulses’ time of initiation and the average speed of the leader, we estimated the distance travelled by the leader. One case of positive return stroke preceded by negative leader pulses was also observed, and the occurrence of these pulses was the first in positive ground flashes to be reported. The majority of these positive ground flashes were found to be single-stroke. Comparison between the first and the subsequent return strokes showed that the average durations of the subsequent stroke parameters were smaller than that of the first strokes. The distances reported by the lightning location system suggest that the subsequent strokes probably created new terminations to ground. Two possible reasons were given to explain the reason for the shorter duration of the subsequent return strokes parameters compared to the first strokes. Finally, observations of distant positive and negative ground flashes showed that the electric field waveforms have a typical shape, like a distorted ‘W’ (or distorted ‘M’ for negative ground flashes) followed by small oscillations. These small oscillations were more pronounced in negative ground flashes, especially at a greater distance. The heights of the ionospheric reflections estimated for both ground flashes were found to likely correspond to a D-layer of the ionosphere. Two possible reasons were suggested for the small oscillations observed in the waveforms.

Depuis une vingtaine d'années, la qualité de la prévision de la trajectoire des cyclones tropicaux a fortement progressé mais peu d'améliorations ont été apportées à la prévision de l'intensité. Cette thèse s'intéresse aux changements d'intensité des cyclones tropicaux du sud-ouest de l'océan Indien sous l'angle original de l'activité électrique.Une première étude climatologique s'appuyant sur les données du réseau de détection d'éclairs World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) a permis de valider la qualité de ces données et de montrer que les cyclones tropicaux pouvaient être une source importante de production d'éclairs à l'échelle du bassin. À partir de ce résultat, une étude ciblée a été menée en considérant la spécificité du bassin et trois régions ont été définis (océan ouvert, région à proximité de la côte est de Madagascar et Canal du Mozambique). L'activité électrique des cyclones tropicaux dépend de la région où ils se trouvent ainsi que de leur stade d'intensité. Les éclairs semblent être un marqueur des phases d'intensification et d'affaiblissement dans certains situations. La troisième étape de cette thèse a consisté à simuler de manière idéalisée un cyclone tropical mature et a tenté d'expliquer les processus physiques à l'origine de l'activité électrique. Le modèle reproduit bien le comportement sporadique des éclairs habituellement observé. Des bilans montrent que ce cyclone présente trois phases caractéristiques, chacune associée à un comportement dynamique, microphysique et électrique différent. Enfin, une deuxième étude purement numérique a tenté d'identifier des estimateurs de l'activité électrique. Pourcelà deux approches ont été adoptées : une étude globale et une étude par cellule. Dans les deux cas, les meilleurs estimateurs sont la masse totale de graupel, le volume d'updraft et le produit des flux des masses de glace précipitante et non précipitante. / Tropical cyclone track forecast has improved over the past two decades but little improvement have been done in intensity changes forecast. This thesis focuses on the intensity changes of tropical cyclones in the southwest Indian ocean through the original aspect of lightning activity. A climatology of lightning activity in the southwest Indian ocean using data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) is first proposed. Results showed that the WWLLN was able to locate and capture the lightning activity in the basin and that tropical cyclones can be considered as a major source of lightning flashes in some oceanic parts of this region. From this result, study of lightning activity in tropical cyclones of the southwest Indian ocean has been done considering the basin configuration. Thus, three regions were defined: open ocean, region near the eastern coast of Madagascar and the Mozambique Channel. The location and intensity of lightning activity depend on the region and the intensity stage. Lightning flashes seem to be a proxy of intensification or weakening under some conditions. The third step of this thesis was to simulate in an idealized framework a mature tropical cyclone. The model was first able to reproduce the sporadic behavior of lightning activity as observed. Budgets have shown that the presence of three distinctive phases characterized by different dynamical, microphysical and electrical behaviors. Finally, another purely numerical work tried to identify some proxies of lightning activity according two approaches : a global analysis anda per-cell analysis. In both cases, the best proxies are the total graupel mass, the updraft volume and the product of precipitating and non-precipitating ice mass fluxes.