A phased array antenna differs from a conventional antenna, such as a dish antenna, in that it coherently adds radiation from multiple radiating elements instead of mechanical positioning to direct RF energy. When transmitting and receiving information from a source while in motion, a phased array antenna can continuously adjust its signal to focus on the source. New antenna designs focus on integrating phased array antennas into the structure of the antenna platform, as advanced antenna platforms require the antenna to take up less and less real estate. With further development of phased array antennas, new designs become increasingly complex. The manufacturing techniques to facilitate the integration of complex antenna designs into the structure of an antenna platform must be developed, as traditional manufacturing operations, such as injection molding, machining and bulk deformation processes, are not well suited to create the small details and complex three dimensional lattice designs of the antennas. Innovative solutions need to be developed that allow the manufacture of complex antennas, thereby enabling testing to be performed on actual devices. The results from testing physical models can buttress analytical models and lead to better antenna designs. This work developed and studied suitable methods for manufacturing three-dimensional, structurally-integrated antennas.

Analyse und Entwicklung eines webbasierten Buchungsmoduls für das Busreiseverwaltungssystem "MikrobusONLINE" auf Basis der Flex-Technologie und der Skriptsprache Perl

The rapid expansion of low-density suburban areas in North America has led to new travel patterns that require transit services to be more flexible. Flex-Route transit service, which combines fixed-route transit service with elements of demand-responsive transit service, has emerged as a viable transit option to address the travel needs of the residents of these areas. Existing literature in this field, however, is limited and lacks any comprehensive analysis of Flex-Route planning, design and scheduling. This research aims at exploring Flex-Route transit service to provide detailed guidelines for the planning and design of the service, as well as developing a new scheduling system for this type of unique service. Accordingly, the objectives of this research are: assessing the practicality of Flex-Route transit service in serving low-density suburban areas; identifying essential Flex-Route planning steps and design parameters; determining the feasibility and cost of replacing fixed-route transit with Flex-Route service; and developing a Flex-Route-specific dynamic scheduling system that relies on recent developments in computer and communication technologies. In this regard, we develop an analytical model that addresses several design parameters and provide a detailed analysis that includes, among other parameters, finding optimal values for Flex-Route service area and slack time. Furthermore, the analytical model includes a feasibility and cost analysis that estimates the cost incurred by several stakeholders if Flex-Route service is chosen to replace fixed-route service. The core of the scheduling system is a new developed algorithm – the Constrained-Insertion Algorithm- that exploits the powerful search techniques of Constraint Programming. The scheduling system can handle the daily operations of Flex-Route transit services; it accepts daily (or dynamic) inputs and, in minimal time, produces very cost-effective and reliable schedules. Moreover, the scheduling system has the ability to be used as simulation tool to allow transit operators to assess the feasibility and performance of proposed Flex-Route transit services before implementation. The applicability of the analytical model as well as the performance of the scheduling system were subsequently evaluated and validated through process that included testing on a case study in the City of Oakville, Canada.

The rapid expansion of low-density suburban areas in North America has led to new travel patterns that require transit services to be more flexible. Flex-Route transit service, which combines fixed-route transit service with elements of demand-responsive transit service, has emerged as a viable transit option to address the travel needs of the residents of these areas. Existing literature in this field, however, is limited and lacks any comprehensive analysis of Flex-Route planning, design and scheduling. This research aims at exploring Flex-Route transit service to provide detailed guidelines for the planning and design of the service, as well as developing a new scheduling system for this type of unique service. Accordingly, the objectives of this research are: assessing the practicality of Flex-Route transit service in serving low-density suburban areas; identifying essential Flex-Route planning steps and design parameters; determining the feasibility and cost of replacing fixed-route transit with Flex-Route service; and developing a Flex-Route-specific dynamic scheduling system that relies on recent developments in computer and communication technologies. In this regard, we develop an analytical model that addresses several design parameters and provide a detailed analysis that includes, among other parameters, finding optimal values for Flex-Route service area and slack time. Furthermore, the analytical model includes a feasibility and cost analysis that estimates the cost incurred by several stakeholders if Flex-Route service is chosen to replace fixed-route service. The core of the scheduling system is a new developed algorithm – the Constrained-Insertion Algorithm- that exploits the powerful search techniques of Constraint Programming. The scheduling system can handle the daily operations of Flex-Route transit services; it accepts daily (or dynamic) inputs and, in minimal time, produces very cost-effective and reliable schedules. Moreover, the scheduling system has the ability to be used as simulation tool to allow transit operators to assess the feasibility and performance of proposed Flex-Route transit services before implementation. The applicability of the analytical model as well as the performance of the scheduling system were subsequently evaluated and validated through process that included testing on a case study in the City of Oakville, Canada.

Zugl.: Groningen, Univ., Diss., 2004

The use of the finite element method within an optimization workflow is fraught with challenges that limit the automation of such workflows. These challenges are inherent to the traditional finite element formulations which are heavily dependent on a manual meshing process that introduces variability that is challenging to account for within an automated workflow. The recently developed flex representation method (FRM) provides a salient solution to the manual meshing process without sacrificing solution accuracy. In response to the development of FRM a global automotive company requested a study to explore the applicability of FRM to one of their sizing-optimization problems: the constrained optimization of a wheel undergoing a rigidity test. In this study we develop an optimization framework based on the DAKOTA optimization framework, the open-source FreeCAD computer-aided design software, and an implementation of FRM within the Coreform IGA solver. Within this framework we demonstrate in the affirmative that FRM enables a highly robust sizing-optimization workflow while requiring minimal effort to prepare the FRM model.

A flex-fan has flexible blades which undergo large deformation under centrifugal forces to give the desired air-flow and power-consumption characteristics with speed. The finite element technique has been used to obtain the deflected shape of the blade of such a fan used for automobile radiator cooling. The natural frequencies of vibration are also evaluated at different speeds, up to 5,000 rpm. A partially conforming deflection function has been used in the analysis. The blade has been treated as a thin shell, idealized as an assembly of thin flat triangular elements. / Thesis / Master of Engineering (ME)

O sistema tribológico anel/cilindro é considerado de elevada complexidade. Condições de regime de lubrificação limítrofe, mista e hidrodinâmica se intercalam devido às cargas alternadas e velocidades variáveis do sistema. As elevadas temperaturas envolvidas e a presença de substâncias corrosivas e de outros contaminantes também contribuem para a ocorrência de diferentes intensidades e mecanismos de desgaste ao longo do cilindro. Apesar dos significativos avanços na avaliação do desgaste em cilindros de motores, algumas questões permanecem em aberto, tais como: Quais são os principais causadores do desgaste por abrasão em motores flex-fuel? Quais são os principais mecanismos de endurecimento atuantes em cilindros de motores flex-fuel? É possível que o ponto morto superior (PMS) não seja a região do cilindro com maior desgaste? É possível estimar o desgaste de cilindros de motores considerando apenas alterações topográficas em nível de rugosidade? O folded metal pode afetar significativamente o desgaste de cilindros de motores? Como este defeito é formado? Estas e outras perguntas são respondidas ao longo deste trabalho. Para tanto, o presente trabalho avalia o desgaste em cilindros de motores de combustão interna por meio de duas vertentes, sendo elas: o mapeamento de modos e mecanismos de desgaste e a quantificação do desgaste via perda volumétrica. Além disso, são investigadas eventuais causas de intensificação do desgaste e possíveis modos de minimização do desgaste. Os efeitos das alterações topográficas decorrentes do desgaste no desempenho do motor também são analisados. O método da perfilometria óptica foi utilizado nas análises de quantificação do desgaste com o propósito de avaliar a perda volumétrica de material em diferentes regiões do cilindro. Para tanto, dez diferentes métodos para estimativa de desgaste foram propostos. Embora a maior parte dos trabalhos publicados utilize os vales como altura de referência para comparação entre superfícies antes e após o desgaste, o presente trabalho mostrou que melhores resultados para estimativa de desgaste de cilindros com acabamento do tipo plateau honing podem ser obtidos utilizando-se a altura correspondente ao Smr2 como referência absoluta. Contudo, a mesma altura de referência não apresentou resultados satisfatórios na quantificação de desgaste em cilindros com acabamento do tipo standard honing. Deste modo, constatou-se que a escolha do melhor método para estimativa do desgaste via perda volumétrica é altamente dependente do acabamento do cilindro. Verificou-se também no trabalho que os principais mecanismos de desgaste atuantes nos cilindros do motor flex-fuel são desgaste por abrasão e por reações triboquímicas, com participação menos expressiva de desgaste por fadiga de contato e por adesão. Neste mesmo motor, verificou-se também que o desgaste por abrasão ocorreu principalmente devido à ação abrasiva de debris e/ou pela interação direta entre anel e cilindro, sendo que os produtos de combustão tiveram menor importância. Contudo, fatores como mau funcionamento do motor ou acabamento do cilindro podem afetar na contribuição da ação de resíduos do processo de combustão sobre o desgaste abrasivo total do cilindro. Verificou-se que o desgaste de cilindros de motores ocorre preferencialmente nas bordas dos sulcos de brunimento, de modo que a redução da quantia de folded metal pode contribuir significativamente para a redução do desgaste. Estudou-se também o efeito dual da grafita: como lubrificante sólido (o que contribui para a diminuição de atrito e desgaste do cilindro) e como concentradora de tensões (o que contribui para o aumento do desgaste). Além disso, verificou-se que grafitas também podem contribuir para o surgimento do defeito folded metal. Assim, sugere-se que a morfologia da grafita pode ser alterada de modo a se obter não apenas um material com maior resistência à fadiga, mas também uma superfície com menos defeitos superficiais e, consequentemente, com menor propensão ao desgaste. Constatou-se também que o tipo de óxido formado na superfície do cilindro pode afetar consideravelmente sua taxa de desgaste e, portanto, dependendo da composição do cilindro e das condições operacionais do motor, é possível que o PMS não seja a região do cilindro com desgaste mais acentuado. O trabalho também mostrou que os mecanismos de endurecimento atuantes em cilindros de motores flex-fuel são decorrentes de recristalização com refino de grão e encruamento. Finalmente, verificou-se por meio de simulações computacionais que o alisamento da topografia do cilindro (resultante do processo de desgaste) tende a aumentar o coeficiente de atrito na região de meio de curso do pistão e a diminuí-lo nos pontos de reversão. / The tribological system piston ring/cylinder bore is considered to be of high complexity. Due to the presence of alternate loads and variable speeds, boundary, mixed and hydrodynamic lubrication regimes occur at each stroke of the engine. High temperature and corrosive substances also contribute to the occurrence of different wear intensities and mechanisms in cylinder bores. Despite significant advances in the wear assessment of cylinder bores, some issues still remain, like: What are the main causes of abrasion in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines? What are the main strengthening mechanisms in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines? Is it possible that the top dead center (TDC) of the engine is not the region with highest wear? Is it possible to estimate wear of cylinder bores considering just topographic changes in roughness level? Can folded metal significantly affect the amount of wear in cylinder bores? How is this defect generated? These and other questions will be answered in this work. Therefore, the present work is focused on the analysis of wear in cylinder bores based upon two different approaches: the assessment of wear modes and mechanisms and the quantification of wear volume losses. Also, possible causes of wear intensification and possible ways of minimizing wear in cylinder bores will be investigated. The effects of topographic changes due to wear in engine performance will also be analyzed. The method of optical profilometry was used in the wear quantification of cylinder bores to assess wear volume losses in different regions of the cylinder. Therefore, ten different methods for wear estimation were proposed. Although most publications consider valleys as the reference height for comparison between surfaces before and after wear, the present work has shown that better results for wear estimation of plateau honed cylinder bores can be obtained by using the height corresponding to the Smr2 as absolute reference. However, the same reference height did not present satisfactory results in the wear quantification of cylinder bores honed with a standard honing. Therefore, this work has shown that the choice of the best method for wear estimation based on wear volume losses is highly dependent upon the cylinder bore surface finish. In this work, it was also verified that the main wear mechanisms in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines are abrasion and tribochemical reaction, with less significant contribution of fatigue and adhesive wear. In the same engine, it was verified that abrasive wear was more affected by wear debris and/or by two body abrasion than from combustion products. However, some factors, like engine malfunction or cylinder bore surface finish can affect the contribution of residues from the combustion process in the total abrasive wear of the cylinder. It was also verified that wear occurs preferentially at the edges of honing grooves, so that the reduction in the amount of folded metal can significantly contribute to the wear reduction in cylinder bores. The dual effect of graphite was also studied: as solid lubricant (which contributes to decrease friction and wear) and as stress concentrator (which contributes to increase wear). Also, it was verified that graphite can contribute to the occurrence of folded metal. Therefore, it is suggested that graphite morphology can be changed in order to obtain not only higher fatigue life, but also a cylinder finish with lower amount of honing defects and, therefore, less prone to wear. The present work has also verified that the oxide composition in the cylinder surface can considerably affect its wear rate and, therefore, depending on cylinder chemical composition and engine operating conditions, it is possible that the TDC is not the region of the cylinder with the highest wear rates. It was also noticed that the strengthening mechanisms in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines are resulting from recrystallization with grain refinement and strain hardening. Finally, it was verified by computational simulations that the surface smoothing of the cylinder (from engine wear) tends to increase the coefficient of friction (COF) in the middle region on the cylinder and to decrease it in top and bottom dead centers.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:36:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Eduardo Nocera.pdf: 12755331 bytes, checksum: 08a19b90827b2e4f2954b2f799e3d18d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-09-19 / MAHLE / Piston rings are metal parts which, when installed on the pistons in the cylinders of the engine, become circular with variable pressure and self-expansive, providing a movable seal between the combustion chamber and the crankcase. These components are subjected to intense functional demand, being asked to submit a low wear rate and maintain their structural and functional integrity under high temperatures and pressures. Due to these requirements, the technique is known of providing up-to-face contact with coatings or surface treatments to improve wear. Currently the majority of applications in the compression rings are martensitic stainless steels. These rings have their tribological properties improved by gas nitriding treatment which gives the steel surface intermediate properties between metallic and ceramic materials with high resistance to adhesive wear, as well as to wear by abrasion. This technology has been applied since the 90s with great success and high market penetration. With demand growing for reducing emissions was introduced in the market the Otto cycle engines with bifuel, better known as Flex engines. The principle of operation of these engines is the use of gasoline and ethanol at any mixing. The compression ratio of the piston is optimized for gasoline and not optimized for ethanol, since the latter does not have limitations to the phenomenon of detonation and this fact makes it occurs more Ethanol injection into the combustion chamber providing an improper fuel does not wash burnt in the cylinder wall. The result was the creation of a different tribological system in the area of operation of the rings where the nitrided layer began to suffer a detachment. This study aimed to find a solution for this detachment, where the nitride layer was changed. The modification consisted in decreasing the precipitation of carbides in the grain boundaries through migration carbon more to the core of the ring making it more robust to cracks and less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. Was created two nitriding stages, one richer in nitrogen which provides the wear resistance required for applying and the second stage causes the carbon to become more concentrated in the core hindering the generation of cracks and, consequently, the detachment. There was a decrease in the hardness of the nitrided layer without deteriorating the wear resistance, creating a unique solution and extending the life of this technology. / Os Anéis de Pistão são peças de metal que, quando instaladas nos pistões dentro dos cilindros dos motores, tornam-se circulares com pressão variável e auto-expansivas, proporcionando uma vedação móvel entre a câmara de combustão e o carter do motor. Estes componentes são submetidos à intensa demanda funcional, sendo solicitados a apresentarem uma baixa taxa de desgaste e a manterem sua integridade estrutural e funcional sob temperaturas e pressões elevadas. Em função destas exigências, é conhecida a técnica de prover-se a face de contato com o cilindro destes componentes revestimentos ou tratamentos de superfície para melhorar a resistência ao desgaste. Atualmente grande parte das aplicações nos anéis de compressão são em aços inoxidáveis martensíticos. Estes anéis têm suas propriedades tribológicas melhoradas pelo tratamento de nitretação gasosa o qual confere ao aço propriedades superficiais intermediárias entre os materiais metálicos e cerâmicos, com alta resistência ao desgaste adesivo, assim como ao desgaste por abrasão. Esta tecnologia vem sendo aplicada desde os anos 90 com absoluto sucesso e alta penetração de mercado. Com a demanda por redução de emissões crescendo foi introduzido no mercado os motores de ciclo Otto bicombustíveis, mais conhecidos como motores flex. O princípio de funcionamento destes motores é a utilização de gasolina e etanol em qualquer mistura. A taxa de compressão do Pistão é otimizada para gasolina e não otimizada para o Etanol, pois este último não possui limitações para o fenômeno de detonação e este fato faz com que ocorra mais injeção de Etanol na câmara de combustão proporcionando uma indevida lavagem de combustível não queimado na parede do cilindro. A consequência foi a criação de um tribo sistema diferente na região de funcionamento dos Anéis onde a camada nitretada começou a sofrer um destacamento. Este trabalho visou buscar uma solução para este destacamento, onde a camada nitretada foi alterada. A alteração consistiu em diminuir a precipitação de carbonetos nas fronteiras dos grãos através da migração do carbono para o núcleo do anel deixando-o mais robusto à nucleação de trincas e menos susceptível a fragilização por hidrogênio. Foram criados dois estágios de nitretação, sendo o primeiro estágio mais rico em nitrogênio o qual confere ao anel a resistência ao desgaste necessária para a aplicação, e o segundo estágio faz com que o carbono fique mais concentrado no núcleo. O problema de destacamento foi resolvido onde houve uma diminuição na dureza da camada nitretada sem a deterioração da resistência ao desgaste do anel, criando uma solução única e estendendo a vida desta tecnologia sem aumento de custos.

O sistema tribológico anel/cilindro é considerado de elevada complexidade. Condições de regime de lubrificação limítrofe, mista e hidrodinâmica se intercalam devido às cargas alternadas e velocidades variáveis do sistema. As elevadas temperaturas envolvidas e a presença de substâncias corrosivas e de outros contaminantes também contribuem para a ocorrência de diferentes intensidades e mecanismos de desgaste ao longo do cilindro. Apesar dos significativos avanços na avaliação do desgaste em cilindros de motores, algumas questões permanecem em aberto, tais como: Quais são os principais causadores do desgaste por abrasão em motores flex-fuel? Quais são os principais mecanismos de endurecimento atuantes em cilindros de motores flex-fuel? É possível que o ponto morto superior (PMS) não seja a região do cilindro com maior desgaste? É possível estimar o desgaste de cilindros de motores considerando apenas alterações topográficas em nível de rugosidade? O folded metal pode afetar significativamente o desgaste de cilindros de motores? Como este defeito é formado? Estas e outras perguntas são respondidas ao longo deste trabalho. Para tanto, o presente trabalho avalia o desgaste em cilindros de motores de combustão interna por meio de duas vertentes, sendo elas: o mapeamento de modos e mecanismos de desgaste e a quantificação do desgaste via perda volumétrica. Além disso, são investigadas eventuais causas de intensificação do desgaste e possíveis modos de minimização do desgaste. Os efeitos das alterações topográficas decorrentes do desgaste no desempenho do motor também são analisados. O método da perfilometria óptica foi utilizado nas análises de quantificação do desgaste com o propósito de avaliar a perda volumétrica de material em diferentes regiões do cilindro. Para tanto, dez diferentes métodos para estimativa de desgaste foram propostos. Embora a maior parte dos trabalhos publicados utilize os vales como altura de referência para comparação entre superfícies antes e após o desgaste, o presente trabalho mostrou que melhores resultados para estimativa de desgaste de cilindros com acabamento do tipo plateau honing podem ser obtidos utilizando-se a altura correspondente ao Smr2 como referência absoluta. Contudo, a mesma altura de referência não apresentou resultados satisfatórios na quantificação de desgaste em cilindros com acabamento do tipo standard honing. Deste modo, constatou-se que a escolha do melhor método para estimativa do desgaste via perda volumétrica é altamente dependente do acabamento do cilindro. Verificou-se também no trabalho que os principais mecanismos de desgaste atuantes nos cilindros do motor flex-fuel são desgaste por abrasão e por reações triboquímicas, com participação menos expressiva de desgaste por fadiga de contato e por adesão. Neste mesmo motor, verificou-se também que o desgaste por abrasão ocorreu principalmente devido à ação abrasiva de debris e/ou pela interação direta entre anel e cilindro, sendo que os produtos de combustão tiveram menor importância. Contudo, fatores como mau funcionamento do motor ou acabamento do cilindro podem afetar na contribuição da ação de resíduos do processo de combustão sobre o desgaste abrasivo total do cilindro. Verificou-se que o desgaste de cilindros de motores ocorre preferencialmente nas bordas dos sulcos de brunimento, de modo que a redução da quantia de folded metal pode contribuir significativamente para a redução do desgaste. Estudou-se também o efeito dual da grafita: como lubrificante sólido (o que contribui para a diminuição de atrito e desgaste do cilindro) e como concentradora de tensões (o que contribui para o aumento do desgaste). Além disso, verificou-se que grafitas também podem contribuir para o surgimento do defeito folded metal. Assim, sugere-se que a morfologia da grafita pode ser alterada de modo a se obter não apenas um material com maior resistência à fadiga, mas também uma superfície com menos defeitos superficiais e, consequentemente, com menor propensão ao desgaste. Constatou-se também que o tipo de óxido formado na superfície do cilindro pode afetar consideravelmente sua taxa de desgaste e, portanto, dependendo da composição do cilindro e das condições operacionais do motor, é possível que o PMS não seja a região do cilindro com desgaste mais acentuado. O trabalho também mostrou que os mecanismos de endurecimento atuantes em cilindros de motores flex-fuel são decorrentes de recristalização com refino de grão e encruamento. Finalmente, verificou-se por meio de simulações computacionais que o alisamento da topografia do cilindro (resultante do processo de desgaste) tende a aumentar o coeficiente de atrito na região de meio de curso do pistão e a diminuí-lo nos pontos de reversão. / The tribological system piston ring/cylinder bore is considered to be of high complexity. Due to the presence of alternate loads and variable speeds, boundary, mixed and hydrodynamic lubrication regimes occur at each stroke of the engine. High temperature and corrosive substances also contribute to the occurrence of different wear intensities and mechanisms in cylinder bores. Despite significant advances in the wear assessment of cylinder bores, some issues still remain, like: What are the main causes of abrasion in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines? What are the main strengthening mechanisms in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines? Is it possible that the top dead center (TDC) of the engine is not the region with highest wear? Is it possible to estimate wear of cylinder bores considering just topographic changes in roughness level? Can folded metal significantly affect the amount of wear in cylinder bores? How is this defect generated? These and other questions will be answered in this work. Therefore, the present work is focused on the analysis of wear in cylinder bores based upon two different approaches: the assessment of wear modes and mechanisms and the quantification of wear volume losses. Also, possible causes of wear intensification and possible ways of minimizing wear in cylinder bores will be investigated. The effects of topographic changes due to wear in engine performance will also be analyzed. The method of optical profilometry was used in the wear quantification of cylinder bores to assess wear volume losses in different regions of the cylinder. Therefore, ten different methods for wear estimation were proposed. Although most publications consider valleys as the reference height for comparison between surfaces before and after wear, the present work has shown that better results for wear estimation of plateau honed cylinder bores can be obtained by using the height corresponding to the Smr2 as absolute reference. However, the same reference height did not present satisfactory results in the wear quantification of cylinder bores honed with a standard honing. Therefore, this work has shown that the choice of the best method for wear estimation based on wear volume losses is highly dependent upon the cylinder bore surface finish. In this work, it was also verified that the main wear mechanisms in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines are abrasion and tribochemical reaction, with less significant contribution of fatigue and adhesive wear. In the same engine, it was verified that abrasive wear was more affected by wear debris and/or by two body abrasion than from combustion products. However, some factors, like engine malfunction or cylinder bore surface finish can affect the contribution of residues from the combustion process in the total abrasive wear of the cylinder. It was also verified that wear occurs preferentially at the edges of honing grooves, so that the reduction in the amount of folded metal can significantly contribute to the wear reduction in cylinder bores. The dual effect of graphite was also studied: as solid lubricant (which contributes to decrease friction and wear) and as stress concentrator (which contributes to increase wear). Also, it was verified that graphite can contribute to the occurrence of folded metal. Therefore, it is suggested that graphite morphology can be changed in order to obtain not only higher fatigue life, but also a cylinder finish with lower amount of honing defects and, therefore, less prone to wear. The present work has also verified that the oxide composition in the cylinder surface can considerably affect its wear rate and, therefore, depending on cylinder chemical composition and engine operating conditions, it is possible that the TDC is not the region of the cylinder with the highest wear rates. It was also noticed that the strengthening mechanisms in cylinder bores from flex-fuel engines are resulting from recrystallization with grain refinement and strain hardening. Finally, it was verified by computational simulations that the surface smoothing of the cylinder (from engine wear) tends to increase the coefficient of friction (COF) in the middle region on the cylinder and to decrease it in top and bottom dead centers.