Cut flowers are products that have become a symbol of joy, sorrow and wealth. However, consumption contributes to various environmental problems, such as greenhouse gas emissions and leakage of nutrients and pesticides. This study aims to investigate the environmental impact of outdoor-grown cut flowers from a sustainability perspective in Sweden. The questions answered are which aspects of the cut flower lifecycle have the greatest environmental impact, what the cut flower growers think of the cut flower industry and its sustainability and how their work can become more sustainable. The study was conducted through semi-structured interviews with eight businesses that grow field-grown cut flowers and a literature review focusing on the environmental impact of cut flowers from a life cycle perspective. The results from the literature review show that the main environmental and climate aspects from a life cycle perspective are transport, heating through fossil fuels and the use of fertilizers and chemical pesticides. The results from the interviews show that challenges with the cut flower industry are origins of seeds, lack of knowledge and behavior and consumption patterns. Opportunities consist of growing demand, good quality and being able to offer a more sustainable product. Swedish field-grown cut flowers can be considered a sustainable alternative to imported ones due to shorter transport and the difference in the use of nutrients and chemicals. Although, more transparency, knowledge and collaboration will be needed in the industry for long-term sustainable development. Measures that can be implemented to promote the production and consumption of Swedish sustainable cut flowers are political incentives and possibly a certification or labeling.

Die vorliegende Arbeit widmet sich den aktuellen Problemen der Branche für Blumen und Pflanzen und hat zum Ziel, eine lebensstilbasierte Kundensegmentierung im Blumen- und Pflanzeneinzelhandel in Deutschland zu erstellen. Da diesbezüglich kaum auf bereits vorhandene Forschungsarbeiten zurückgegriffen werden konnte, werden grundsätzliche Theorien diskutiert und miteinander in Verbindung gebracht. So werden einerseits die aktuellen Gegebenheiten des Marktes für BuP bestimmt, sozialwissenschaftliche Theorien über Lebensstile diskutiert und die Theorien des Marketings, insbesondere die der Marktsegmentierung und die der zur Verfügung stehenden Marketinginstrumente, berücksichtigt. Basierend auf diesen Theorien wird ein interdisziplinäres Modell entwickelt, das die Kaufmotive der Konsumenten für BuP erforscht. Ziel ist es, Rückschlüsse über das Zustandekommen von Kaufentscheidungen zu erhalten, was es im Umkehrschluss ermöglicht, Handlungsempfehlungen für die Marktangebotsseite abzuleiten. Dazu werden in einer empirischen Erhebung 880 Konsumenten befragt und deren Antwortverhalten ausgewertet. Dabei finden eine Faktorenanalyse, eine Clusteranalyse und eine multinominale logistische Regressionsanalyse Anwendung. Die Ergebnisse zeigen auf, dass sich die Konsumenten in sechs verschiedene Zielsegmente differenzieren lassen. Des Weiteren zeigen die Beschreibungen der sechs Segmente Möglichkeiten für einen möglichst effizienten Einsatz der Marketinginstrumente auf. Die Diskussion über deren Einsatz erfolgt anhand ausgewählter Situationen aus der Unternehmenspraxis.

This Diploma Thesis deals with the logistics chain of flowers and its individual components. The aim is to characterize the whole chain of flowers and to describe its components - from the grower to the retailer - and to suggest options for streamlining, mostly from the ecological perspective. The influence of different means of transport and heated greenhouses on the environment is evaluated through carbon footprint calculations. Part of the work is also devoted to the characteristics of the flower industry in the Czech Republic. The thesis came to the conclusion that the best is to transport flowers by ship, it is good for their quality and the less harmful for the environment. The second best choice is rail, also with very good quality of flowers and then the road and airplane, which is still less harmful to the environment than growing flowers in heated greenhouses.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Quality of certain Leucospermum and Leucadendron cultivars after approximately 21 days shipping has been reported to be substandard due to ‘drying out’ of leaves and, in the case of Leucadendrons, involucral leaves. The nature of the symptoms of this ‘drying out’ and the conditions under which they form, viz. long exposures to low temperatures, has led us to hypothesize that these are symptoms of chilling injury (CI). Chilling injury, as far as we are aware, has not been documented on Leucospermums or Leucadendrons. Typical CI symptomology is discussed and shown for Leucospermum ‘Gold Dust’, ‘High Gold’ and ‘Succession’ and for Leucadendron ‘Chameleon’, ‘Laurel Yellow’ and ‘Safari Sunset’. The nature of CI symptoms for Leucospermums and Leucadendrons was generally membranous breakdown that manifested in some cases as a ‘water soaked’ appearance which, at a more advanced stage, was generally visible as ‘dried out’ patches on the leaves. In the case of the Leucadendrons CI was also visible on the immature involucral leaves which are more sensitive to chilling conditions than mature leaves. Dark discoloration of especially immature involucral leaves is also a symptom of CI. As water uptake of shoots with chilling injury is hindered the styles of the Leucospermums wilt. As can be expected, the lower the temperature below the threshold temperature and the longer the exposure the more severe the symptoms. CI was recorded on cut flower shoots of Leucospermum ‘Gold Dust’, ‘High Gold’, ‘Rigoletto’, ‘Succession’ and ‘Vlam’ after 21 and 24 days storage at 1ºC. After 24 days storage the chilling injury was more severe than after 21 days storage in most cases. Each cultivar was pulsed with 5 ml per stem of a 2% (w/v) sugar solution of either lactulose, sucrose, glucose, fructose or mannose before storage. After storage, CI was recorded on day 0, 3, 7 and 10 of the vase phase. Of the cultivars tested ‘Vlam’ and especially ‘Rigoletto’ were more prone to chilling injury development. ‘High Gold’ and ‘Vlam’ shoots were pulsed with 0 (control), 1.5, 3 or 4% (w/v) solutions of either mannose or fructose. The best control of CI for both cultivars was achieved with 1.5% (w/v) solution. Lower concentrations of mannose and fructose were tested on ‘High Gold’ shoots, with a 1% (w/v) solution giving the best control for both. At high concentrations signs of toxicity became evident directly after pulsing. ‘High Gold’ shoots were pulsed with 1% (w/v) solutions of mannose and fructose and sugar analyses were performed on shoots at different stages of storage and after 10 days in the vase. A slight increase in mannose and fructose was detectable in the stems of the shoots directly after pulsing but not in the leaves or the inflorescences. This is due to the low concentrations being used. The levels of all the carbohydrates decreased during the 21 days storage and more so during the vase phase of the flowering shoots. The fact that such low concentrations were effective in controlling chilling injury suggests that the sugars may have an effect other than on the osmotic potential. Cut ‘flower’ shoots of Leucadendron ‘Chameleon’, ‘Laurel Yellow’ and ‘Safari Sunset’ were stored for 14, 21 and 28 days, at 1º, 3º and 5ºC and CI development recorded during the subsequent 10 day vase phase. ‘Laurel Yellow’ and ‘Safari Sunset’ showed signs of chilling injury on the leaves after 28 days storage at 3ºC or lower and ‘Safari Sunset’ stored for 21 days developed chilling injury during the vase phase. Immature involucral leaves were more sensitive to chilling injury than leaves. CI increased with longer exposure times and lower storage temperatures for all three cultivars evaluated. ‘Chameleon’ was the most chilling tolerant of the cultivars up to 21 days. At 5ºC chilling injury was low irrespective of cold storage duration but longer exposures to 1º and 3ºC resulted in increased chilling injury development during the vase phase. All three cultivars were pulsed with 5 ml per stem of a 1% (w/v) solution of lactulose, sucrose, glucose, fructose or mannose and stored for 14, 21 and 28 days at 1ºC. The sugars reduced chilling injury on the leaves for ‘Safari Sunset’ when stored for 28 days and, to a lesser extent, in ‘Chameleon’. The sugars failed to reduce chilling injury of the involucral leaves of ‘Chameleon’ and ‘Laurel Yellow’ whereas there was some control especially after 28 days for ‘Safari Sunset’. In some cases the sugar pulse exacerbated chilling injury. Chilling injury generally increased rapidly after storage during the first three days in the vase and then at a lower rate for the next seven days. Leucadendron ‘Chameleon’, ‘Laurel Yellow’ and ‘Safari Sunset’ ‘cut flower’ shoots were pulsed with a 1% (w/v) glucose solution. Expressed on a dry weight basis, an increase in glucose concentration was not detected. The reduction in chilling injury of leaves by a sugar pulse is speculated, as for the Leucospermums, to be as a result of their presence in the apoplast and not the symplast and that their presence there protects the membranes against chilling conditions in some way. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die kwaliteit van sekere Leucospermum en Leucadendron kultivars na ongeveer 21 dae verskeping is waargeneem as substandaard as gevolg van die uitdroog van blare en, in die geval van Leucadendrons, die ‘involucral’ blare. Die aard van die simptome van hierdie uitdroging en die toestande waaronder dit plaasvind nl. lang periodes van blootstelling aan lae temperature, het ons tot die hipotese gebring dat hierdie simptome van koueskade is. Sover as wat ons bewus is, is koueskade nog nie gedokumenteer op Leucospermums of Leucadendrons nie. Tipiese koueskade simptomologie word bespreek en gewys vir Leucospermum ‘Gold Dust’, ‘High Gold’ en ‘Succession’ en vir Leucadendron ‘Chameleon’, ‘Laurel Yellow’ en ‘Safari Sunset’. Die koueskade simptome vir Leucospermums en Leucadendrons was oor die algemeen membraan afbraak wat ‘n water deurdrenkte voorkoms tot gevolg gehad het wat in ‘n meer gevorderde stadium sigbaar was as uitgedroogde kolle op die blare. In die geval van Leucadendrons was koueskade ook sigbaar op die onvolwasse ‘involucral’ blare wat meer sensitief is vir koue toestande as volwasse blare. Donker verkleuring van veral onvolwasse ‘involucral’ blare is ook ‘n simptoom van koueskade. Aangesien wateropname van stele met koueskade verhinder word, verwelk die ‘styles’ van die Leucospermums. Soos verwag kan word hoe laer die temperature onder die drempel temperatuur en hoe langer die blootstelling, hoe meer ernstig die simptome. Koueskade is aangeteken op gesnyde blomstele van Leucospermum ‘Gold Dust’, ‘High Gold’, ‘Rigoletto’, ‘Succession’ en ‘Vlam’ na 21 en 24 dae opberging by 1°C. Na 24 dae opberging was die koueskade meer ernstig as na 21 dae opberging in meeste gevalle. Elke kultivar het 5ml per steel van ‘n 2% (g/v) suiker oplossing van laktolose, sucrose, glucose, fruktose of mannose voor opberging opgeneem. Na opberging is koueskade aangeteken op dag 0, 3, 7 en 10. Van die kultivars wat getoets is, was ‘Vlam’ en veral ‘Rigoletto’ meer geneig tot koueskade ontwikkeling. ‘High Gold’ en ‘Vlam’ stele is geplaas in oplossings van 0 (kontrole), 1.5, 3 of 4 % (g/v) oplossings van mannose of fruktose. Die beste beheer van koueskade vir beide kultivars is deur die 1.5 (g/v) oplossing behaal. Laer konsentrasies van mannose en fruktose is getoets op ‘High Gold’ stele met ‘n 1% (g/v) mannose oplossing wat die beste beheer gegee het. Met hoë konsentrasies het tekens van toksisiteit sigbaar geword direk na opneem van die oplossing. ‘High Gold’ stele is geplaas in 1% (g/v) oplossings van mannose of fruktose en suiker analises is uitgevoer op stele by verskillende stadiums van opberging en na 10 dae in die vaas. ‘n Effense toename in mannose en fruktose is waargeneem in die stele van die blomme direk na opname van die oplossing, maar nie in die blare of die blomme nie. Dit is as gevolg van die lae konsentrasies wat gebruik is. Die vlakke van al die koolhidrate het afgeneem gedurende die 21 dae opberging en nog meer so gedurende die vaas periode van die blommende stele. Die feit dat sulke lae konsentrasies effektief is in die beheer van koueskade dui daarop dat die suikers ‘n effek het anders as op die osmotiese potensiaal. Snyblomme van Leucadendron ‘Chameleon’, ‘Laurel Yellow’ en ‘Safari Sunset’ is opgeberg vir 14, 21 en 28 dae, by 1º, 3º en 5°C en koueskade ontwikkeling is aangeteken gedurende die opvolgende 10 dae vaas periode. ‘Laurel Yellow’ en ‘Safari Sunset’ het tekens gewys van koueskade op die blare na 28 dae opberging by 3°C of laer en ‘Safari Sunset’ opgeberg vir 21 dae het koueskade ontwikkel gedurende die vaas periode. Onvolwasse ‘involucral’ blare was meer sensitief vir koueskade as die blare. Koueskade het toegeneem met langer blootstellingstye en laer opbergins temperature vir al drie kultivars geëvalueer. ‘Chameleon’ was die mees koueverdraagsaam van die drie kultivars tot op 21 dae. By 5°C was laag ongeag van die koue opberging tydperk, maar langer blootstellings aan 1º en 3°C het gelei tot toename in koueskade ontwikkeling gedurende die vaas periode. Al drie kultivars is voorsien met 5ml per steel van ‘n 1% (g/v) oplossing van lactulose, sucrose, glucose, fruktose of mannose en opgeberg vir 14, 21 en 28 dae by 1°C. Die suikers het koueskade verminder op die blare van ‘Safari Sunset’ wanneer opgeberg vir 28 dae en, tot ‘n mindere mate, in ‘Chameleon’. Die suikers het egter nie koueskade verminder van die ‘involucral’ blare van ‘Chameleon’ en ‘Laurel Yellow’ nie, waar daar egter wel in ‘n mate beheer was veral na 28 dae vir ‘Safari Sunset’. In sommige gevalle het die voorsiening van suiker die koueskade vererger. Koueskade het oor die algemeen vinnig toegeneem na opberging gedurende die eerste drie dae in die vaas en dan teen ‘n laer tempo vir die volgende sewe dae. Leucadendron ‘Chameleon’, ‘Laurel Yellow’ en ‘Safari Sunset’ snyblom stele is voorsien van ‘n 1% (g/v) glukose oplossing. Uitgedruk op ‘n droëmassa basis is ‘n toename in glukose konsentrasie nie waargeneem nie. Die afname in koueskade van blare deur die voorsiening van ‘n suiker oplossing is gespekuleer vir die Leucospermums, om ‘n resultaat te wees van hulle teenwoordigheid in die apoplas en nie die simplas nie, en dat die teenwoordigheid daar die membrane op ‘n manier beskerm teen koue toestande.

Thesis (MSc (Botany and Zoology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: It is thought that a large proportion of the great variety of floral structures in flowering plants reflect adaptations to different biotic pollen vectors. Divergence in flower traits and pollinators is linked to speciation. Pollinator-driven speciation is thought to have played a large role in the spectacular floral diversity found in South African Iridaceae and the genus Tritoniopsis is a particularly good example of this. This study focuses on Tritoniopsis revoluta, a pink irid occurring in the Swartberg and Langeberg Mountains, as well as Potberg Mountain. I tested the hypothesis that variation in flower tube-lengths of Tritoniopsis revoluta are related to the geographic distribution of pollinators and the variation of their tongue lengths. It was determined that this species is highly variable in respect to corolla tube-length and is pollinated by different fly species across its range. Also, the tongue-lengths of the fly pollinators corresponded almost exactly with the tube-length of the flowers they were pollinating in each population. In some populations, where long-proboscid flies were absent, bees were observed visiting T. revoluta flowers. This presents evidence for pollinator-driven floral variation within a single plant species, and most of this vast diversification in floral morphology has probably been driven by morphological variation found within a single fly family. In one population I found variable tube-lengths which appeared to exhibit a bimodal distribution of corolla tubelengths. I hypothesized that the two Tritoniopsis revoluta ecotypes at this population are pollinated by two different pollinators, leading to assortative mating, and ultimately strong inter-ecotype incompatibility. Tritoniopsis revoluta is self-incompatible and exists as two discrete entities (morphotypes) at the Gysmanshoek Pass site, and these entities differ in tubelength, color, nectar volume and sugar content. These morphotypes were not pollinated by long-proboscid flies, but seems to represent a recent shift to pollination by Amegilla bees. However, ecotypes are not reproductively isolated as short and long flowers can produce offspring, rather tube-length differences are possibly maintained through spatial separation. To compliment the correlatory data between flower tube-lengths and pollinator tongue-lengths, I used molecular tools (chloroplast markers and AFLPs) to elucidate the patterns of tube-length evolution in Tritoniopsis revoluta. I aimed to determine the directionality and frequency of transitions between tube-length categories. Tube-length transitions would be suggestive of flower morphology being labile, and together with the tube-tongue length correlation it suggests pollinator shifts may drive the changes in tube length. Character state reconstructions using tube-length as character determined that four evolutionary transitions to shorter tube-length categories and two transitions to longer categories occurred. I also tested whether morphological divergence between populations corresponds to patterns of divergence from neutral genetic markers. Population genetic structure in this system showed that the different populations of T. revoluta are vicariant and tube-length differences between them could have evolved through selection. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Dit is ‘n algemene gedagte dat die groot verskeidenheid blom strukture in die angiosperme dui op aanpassings tot verskillende biotiese stuifmeel draers. Die diverse blom strukture in baie van die groot Kaapse genera kan verduidelik word deur aanpassings tot veranderinge in bestuiwings-sisteme. ‘n Aantal studies hieroor stel voor dat bestuiwers nie net die veranderinge in blom morfologie bewerkstellig nie, maar ook ‘n rol speel in die aanpassende uiteenlopendheid van blomplant kenmerke. Spesiasie bewerkstellig deur bestuiwers het moontlik ‘n groot rol gespeel in die blom-diversiteit wat gevind word in die Suid-Afrikaanse Iridaceae familie, en die genus Tritoniopsis is ‘n baie goeie voorbeeld hiervan. Hierdie studie fokus spesifiek op Tritoniopsis revoluta, ‘n pienk iris wat voorkom in die Swart- en Langeberge, asook by Potberg. Die hipotese dat die variasie in buis-lengtes van T. revoluta verwant is aan die geografiese verspreiding van bestuiwers en die variasie in hul tong-lengtes is hier getoets. Dit is bepaal dat hierdie spesie groot variasie toon in terme van buis-lengtes en bestuif word deur verskillende vlieg spesies regoor sy verspreiding. Die tong-lengtes van hierdie vlieë korrespondeer ook met die buis-lengtes van die blomme wat hul bestuif in elkeen van die T. revoluta populasies. In sommige van die populasies, waar lang-tong vlieë afwesig was, is bye wat die T. revoluta blomme besoek, opgemerk. Hierdie resultate lewer bewyse vir die hipotese dat bestuiwers blom morfologie kan beïnvloed; die interessante hiervan is dat die variasie in buis-lengtes in hierdie spesie heel moontlik te danke is aan die morfologies variasie wat gevind word in ‘n enkele lang-tong vlieg familie. In een van die populasies het ek ‘n bimodale verspreiding van buis-lengtes gevind. ‘n Logiese afleiding is dat hierdie twee verskillende buislengtes – ekotipes – deur twee verskillende bestuiwers besoek word, en dat dit lei tot sterk onversoenbaarheid tussen ekotipes. Tritoniopsis revoluta is nie instaat tot self-bestuiwing nie en die twee ekotipes verskil in terme van buis-lengtes, kleur, nektar volume en suiker inhoud. Kort- en lang-buis blomme word nie eksklusief bestuif deur lang-tong vlieë in die Gysmanshoek Pas nie, maar word in die algemeen ook bestuif deur bye van die genus Amegilla. Die twee ekotipes is in staat om te reproduseer met mekaar, so die buis-lengte verskille word moontlik in stand gehou deur hul geografiese skeiding. Om die korrelasie analise tussen blom buislengtes en vlieg tong-lengtes te komplimenteer, het ek molekulêre tegnieke (chloroplast merkers en AFLPs) gebruik om die patrone van buis-lengte evolusie in Tritoniopsis revoluta duidelik te maak. Ten eerste het ek bepaal of verkortings en verlengings van buis-lengtes een keer in die verlede gebeur het, of as meermalige gebeurtenisse. Meermalige veranderinge in buis-lengtes kan moontlik dui op verskuiwings tussen verskillende bestuiwers, asook taksonomiese verdelings wat korrespondeer met bestuiwer veranderinge. Ek het ook bepaal of die buis-lengte verskille in die verskillende populasies toegeskryf kan word aan seleksie prosesse. Deur buis-lengte as karakter te gebruik, het ek karakter-status rekonstruksies gedoen en bepaal dat vier ewolutionêre transisies na korter buis-lengte kategorieë, en twee transisies na langer kategorieë plaasgevind het. Populasie genetiese struktuur in die sisteem dui daarop dat T. revoluta populasies geïsoleer is deur afstand. Die konklusie wat ek trek gebasseer op hierdie resultate is dat verskille in buis-lengtes in hierdie sisteem moontlik ontstaan het as gevolg van die verskillende bestuiwers wat aktief is in die verskillende T. revoluta populasies, en dat natuurlike prosesse nie die hoofrol spelers in hierdie sisteem is ten opsigte van buis-lengte evolusie nie.

A known method for the preservation of green foliage was adapted in order to preserve floral tissues, retaining the colour and texture, thereby providing a method suitable for the preservation of whole flowers. Initially, the effects of the existing foliage preservation process on floral tissues were studied and the resulting problems of limp sticky petals and colour loss were identified. Subsequently, with a knowledge of basic plant anatomy and of the properties of the main floral pigments, the anthocyanins, a series of experiments on petals and whole flowers were carried out in an attempt to rectify these problems and to incorporate the remedies into a method for preserving whole flowers. The problem of improving the texture and firmness of flower heads was tackled by investigating the effects of adding bulking or setting ingredients to the process fluid and establishing their optimum concentrations. In the case of flower colour, the addition of acid was required in order to maintain the bright anthocyanin colours and a range of acids was investigated. Furthermore, since it is known that in nature the anthocyanin pigments are stabilised by metal ions and copigments, the use of these agents in the preservation process was also considered. This empirical work was then validated by confirming the identity of the main pigments involved and by studying various aspects of the new preservation process. Factors examined included acid concentration, temperature, solvent composition and the addition of metal ions and copigments to solutions of petal extracts containing anthocyanin pigments. Physical changes resulting from processing, including process fluid content and the moisture absorption properties of processed petals were also measured. Finally, the application of a selection of coating materials was assessed in an attempt to increase the life span of the processed flowers by providing extra protection against environmental stresses.

As flower visitors, ants rarely benefit a plant, commonly disrupting pollination by deterring other flower visitors, or stealing nectar. This thesis examines three aspects of ant-flower interactions, focusing on the occurrence of floral traits that prevent disruption of pollination and a novel means by which ants may influence pollinator behaviour. To assess which types of plant species possess ant-repelling floral traits I carried out a survey of 49 Neotropical plant species. Around a third of these species were repellent to the common generalist ant Camponotus novograndensis (Formicinae). This repellence was positively correlated with large nectar volumes within individual flowers. It appears that there has been selection for floral ant-repellence as a defence against ant thieves in plant species that invest in large volumes of nectar. In some cases these repellent traits were effective against a wide range of ant species. However, in no plant species were predacious ants particularly repelled, indicating that there may be little selective pressure on non-ant-plants to defend potential pollinators from aggressive ants. To investigate the importance of coevolution in determining the effectiveness of ant-repellents, a small but diverse range of Mediterranean plant species were tested with the invasive nectar thieving ant Linepithema humile (Dolichoderinae) and the native but non-nectar thieving ant Messor bouvieri (Myrmecinae). Responses of both ant species to floral traits were very similar. The ability of some plants to restrict access to ant species with which they have no evolutionary history may help to reduce the impact invasive species, as nectar thieves, have on plant-pollinator interactions. It is reported that flowers recently visited by bees and hoverflies may be rejected for a period of time by subsequent bee visitors through the detection of scent-marks. Nectar-thieving ants could potentially influence the foraging decisions of bees in a similar way if they come to associate ant trail pheromones or footprint hydrocarbons with poor reward levels. However, my empirical work found no differences were found in bee visitation behaviour between flowers of Digitalis pupurea (Plantaginaceae), Bupleurum fruticosum (Apiaceae) or Brassica juncea (Brassicaceae) that had been in contact with ants and control flowers. Ant-attendance at flowers of these species may not reduce reward levels sufficiently to make it worthwhile for bees to incorporate ant scent-marks into foraging decisions. Investigations like these into the interactions between ants, flowers and other flower visitors are essential if we hope to understand the part ants play in pollination ecology, and determine how ants have helped shape floral evolution.

Rwanda is constrained by an export structure that is heavily dependent on one or a few agricultural export products such as coffee, tea , pyrethrum and cinchona. The country did not manage to industrialize or to diversify its export structure significantly during the post-independence period. The situation was worsened by the civil war of 1994, which almost destroyed all sectors of the economy. Traditional export crops, such as coffee, cotton, tea, cocoa, palm oil, and tobacco are all subject to large price fluctuations and declining world market prices. This paper considered the case for diversification into non-traditional agricultural exports as a strategy for improving a developing country's terms of trade. The study put forward a case of Higland Flowers Project / a flowers project located in rural Kigali about 5 kilometers to the Kigali International airport.

Gazania splendens is a tender, herbaceous perennial that belongs to the Compositae family. The leaves are green and glabrous above, white tomentose beneath, toothed, simple and/or pinnatifid, 4”-6” long tapering to a winged petiole, lanceolate to obovate-lanceolate, and arranged in a basal clump. The flower heads are large, showy, 2”-3” in diameter, and range in color from white to yellow, orange, pink, purple, ruby, and bronze with a dark ring or spot at the base of most. Twelve cultivars of Gazania splendens were to be evaluated to determine which would perform the best under Kentucky conditions. A seed germination test was conducted to check the environmental conditions thought to give the best germination rate. Physical characteristics were observed for each cultivar throughout the growing season. A seed germination test was conducted using seed from ‘Sundance Red’ and ‘Sundance Striped.’ The seeds were tested at both 15.5°C and 22°C in light and dark conditions. The highest percentage of seeds germinated at 22°C in the dark. Seed from each cultivar was sown in flats containing Jiffy Mix Plus media, watered, covered with black plastic and white Styrofoam trays, and put in the greenhouse for germination. The seedlings were transplanted into cell packs containing Sunshine Mix media. ‘Sundance Red’ had a very low germination percentage and was the only cultivar not transplanted. The plants were later planted in beds at the Western Kentucky University Farm. Physical characteristics were evaluated throughout the growing season. In the evaluation, monthly flower counts were taken, flower stem stiffness was measured, plant height was measured, plant width was measured, foliage characteristics were noted, and spent flower heads and dead leaves were observed. The flowers were also observed throughout the growing season to evaluate their opening and closing habits. This characteristic is thought to be in response to the amount of sunlight the plant receives. From the evaluation, it was found that ‘Grandiflora Mixture,’ ‘Golden Margarita,’ ‘Ministar Yellow,’ ‘Sundance Yellow,’ and ‘Ministar Mixture’ were the best cultivars for Kentucky. These cultivars exhibited abundant flowers, strong flower stems, good foliage characteristics, and spent flower heads and dead leaves went unnoticed throughout the growing season.

O crisântemo cultivado em vaso é um dos produtos floríferos mais vendidos na floricultura brasileira, possuindo grande diversidade de cores, formas e tamanhos de inflorescências, além de possuir alta durabilidade após a colheita. Para tanto, é necessário o atendimento das exigências nutricionais da planta para possibilitar expressar seu potencial ornamental. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram analisar o crescimento da planta e caracterizar a marcha de absorção de nutrientes no cultivo em vaso do crisântemo, variedade cultivada ,,Fine Time\". O experimento foi realizado na estufa climatizada do Setor de Floricultura do Colégio Politécnico da UFSM, Santa Maria - RS, no período de setembro a dezembro de 2012. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado com oito tratamentos e seis repetições. As plantas foram coletadas e analisadas em intervalos que variaram de 7 a 14 dias dependendo da fase de desenvolvimento da planta. Os parâmetros de crescimento avaliados foram: comprimento das hastes, folhas e de raízes; número de folhas, raízes, brotações, botões florais e de inflorescências; largura e área das folhas; massa de matéria seca das folhas, raízes; botões florais; inflorescências, hastes e das plantas. Em relação aos nutrientes foi analisado teor, acúmulo e marcha de absorção de N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, B, Cu, Fe, Mn e Zn nas raízes, folhas, hastes, botões florais e inflorescências. Os parâmetros comprimento das hastes e raízes, número de folhas e raízes, massa de matéria seca de planta, haste e raiz foram crescentes em função do tempo, tendendo a estabilidade no final do ciclo produtivo. Os parâmetros comprimento e largura das folhas decrescem em função do tempo de cultivo. A ordem decrescente de acúmulo de massa de matéria seca dos órgãos foi: folhas > hastes > raízes > inflorescências > botões florais. A necessidade de N, P, S e Cu é semelhante durante a fase vegetativa e de florescimento. A necessidade de K, Mn e Zn nas plantas é maior na fase de florescimento. A necessidade de Ca, B, Fe e Mg nas plantas é maior na fase vegetativa. A necessidade dos macronutrientes durante a fase vegetativa e de florescimento da planta segue, respectivamente, a seguinte ordem de grandeza: Ca > Mg > N > S > P > K; e K > P > S > N > Mg > Ca. A necessidade dos micronutrientes durante a fase vegetativa e de florescimento da planta segue, respectivamente, a seguinte ordem decrescente de grandeza: B > Fe> Cu > Zn > Mn; e Mn > Zn > Cu > Fe > B. A sequência decrescente do acúmulo de nutrientes nas plantas de crisântemo em função do tempo foi: N > K > P > Ca > S > Mg > Fe > Mn > B > Zn > Cu. / The chrysanthemum cultivated in pot is one of the best seller floristic products in the Brazilian floriculture, having high colors diversity, forms and sizes of inflorescences, besides present high post-harvest durability. Therefore, it is necessary to attend the plant nutrition requirement for enabling to express its ornamental potential. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the plant growth and to characterize the nutrients uptake curve of chrysanthemum, cv. ,,Fine Time\", cultivated on pot. The experiment was carried out at greenhouse of the Floriculture Section, Polytechnic College, Federal University of ,,Santa Maria\" (UFSM), Santa Maria, ,,Rio Grande do Sul\" state, Brazil, from September to December 2012. The statistical design was complete randomized with eight treatments and six replications. The plants were sampled and analyzed in intervals of 7 to 14 days according to the plant development stage. The evaluated growth parameters were: length of stems, leaves and roots; number of leaves, roots, sproutings, buds and inflorescences; width and area of leaves; dry matter of leaves, roots, buds, inflorescences, stems and plants. In relation to the nutrients content, accumulation and uptake curve, the N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, B, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn on the roots, leaves, stems, buds and inflorescences were evaluated. The parameters stem and root length, number of leaves and roots, dry matter of plant, stems and roots were crescent as function of time, presenting a tendency of stability at end of the crop cycle. The parameters length and width of leaves decrease as function of cultivation time. The decrescente order of organ dry matter accumulation was: leaves > stems > roots > inflorescences > buds. The needs of N, P, S and Cu are equal during the vegetative phase and flowering. The needs of K, Mn and Zn in the plants are higher on the flowering phase. The plant demand of Ca, B, Fe and Mg is higher on the vegetative phase. The needs of macronutrients during vegetative phase and flowering obey, respectively, the following order: Ca > Mg > N > S > P > K and K > P > S > N > Mg > Ca. The needs of micronutrients during vegetative phase and flowering obey, respectively, the following decrescent order: B > Fe> Cu > Zn > Mn and Mn > Zn > Cu > Fe > B. The decrescent sequence of nutrient accumulation on the chrysanthemum plants as function of time was: N > K > P > Ca > S > Mg > Fe > Mn > B > Zn > Cu.