An advisory program to determine the timing of fungicide application for control of early leafspot of peanut, caused by Cercospora arachidicola, was developed based on growth responses of the pathogen to specific environmental conditions. The advisory program (89-ADV) assigned time-duration values to conditions conducive for infection (TDVi). Cumulative TDVi levels were used to determine when fungicide applications were needed. Various spray thresholds (TDVi=48, 72, 96, 120) of the 89-ADV program were compared to a 14-day spray schedule and an advisory program that was released to growers in 1981 (81-ADV). Leafspot incidence, area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), spray number, yield and value were used to evaluate the performance of spray programs. Preliminary trials used Florigiant peanut and the fungicide chlorothalonil (1.26 kg/ha). The 89-ADV program with TDVi=48 performed exceptionally well for three consecutive years in field tests and in simulated disease environments reconstructed from historical weather data. Benefits of this program compared to the 81-ADV program included significant improvement of leafspot control, and improved crop yield and value. Based on performance, the 89-ADV program was delivered to growers as the on-line peanut leafspot advisory in 1989. Subsequent evaluations of the 89-ADV program included cultivars and fungicides in large multi-factorial experiments. Three classes of cultivars were identified: class I or highly susceptible, Florigiant and NC 9; class II or moderately susceptible, NC 7 and NC-V11; and class III or moderately resistant, NC 6. The efficiency of fungicide sprays was improved through effective leafspot control with about three fewer sprays per season than the 14-day spray schedule when chlorothalonil at 1.26 kg/ha, diniconazole at 140 g/ha or terbutrazole at 126 g/ha was applied on class I cultivars according to the TDVi=48 threshold of the 89-ADV program. The same efficiency was achieved when chlorothalonil or terbutrazole was applied on class II cultivars according to the TDVi=96. Cupric hydroxide at 1.79 kg/ha plus sulfur at 1.04 kg/ha or terbutrazole at 126 kg/ha with TDVi=96 as well as chlorothalonil at 1.26 kg/ha with TDVi=120 resulted in efficient control of disease on the class III cultivar. The spray adjuvant SoyOil 937® at 0.5% of spray volume consistently improved the performance of chlorothalonil, and allowed a reduction of application rate from 1.26 to 0.95 kg/ha without sacrificing disease control. The integrated use of cultivar resistance, fungicide, spray adjuvant, and TDVi thresholds of the 89-ADV program contributed to a reduction of fungicide input and improved disease control. / Ph. D.

Approximately 10-15% of field-grown eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) within a nursery plantation expressed foliar characteristics similar to that induced by oxidant pollution. Sensitive genotypes (based on foliar characteristics), had a 50% reduction in needle growth, severe needle tip burn, mottling, and early needle shed during a high O₃, drought-type growing season (1988) compared to a low O₃, non-drought growing season (1989). Tolerant genotypes showed little difference in needle growth or visible injury during the two growing season. Seasonal needle ascorbate concentrations were similar during the two years however, needle glutathione (GSH) content has not. Total GSH content was two-to three-fold greater in both genotypes during the summer of 1989 compared to 1988. Cloned, tolerant trees also had 23% more total GSH when exposed to forced ambient air compared to charcoal-filtered air in open-top chambers. Cloned sensitive trees had similar GSH concentrations when exposed to different chamber treatments. One-year-old needles always had lower ratios of ascorbate/ dehydroascorbate, ascorbate/α-tocopherol and GSH/GSSG than current year needles. One-year-old needles from the tolerant tree also maintained a higher glutathione reductase (GR) activity than the sensitive tree during the late summer. Needles of eastern white pine had two isoforms of GR (GR_A and GR_B). GR_A and GR_B accounted for 17% and 83% of the GR recovered, respectively. GR_A and GR_B had different physical and kinetic properties. Antibody produced from GRR was reactive with both native and denatured GR_B, but was cross-reactive with only native GR_A. Tolerant and sensitive clones exposed to control (< 0.025 ppm) or high (4.5 ppm∙hr total dose) O₃ for O to 72 hr, showed no increase in GR activity. Only in the high-O₃-treated trees did the amount of GR protein increase. Needles from the sensitive clone contained 14, 62, and 464 ng GR mgP⁻¹ and needles from the tolerant clone contained 21, 138, and 2800 ng GR mgP⁻¹ after 0, 24 and 72 hr O₃ exposure, respectively. The results of this dissertation indicate that differential foliar characteristics in eastern white pine may be correlated with GSH turnover and its regulation by GR during periods of high oxidant stress. / Ph. D.

Success in evaluating effects of a 75% oxygen atmosphere, containing an ambient concentration of carbon dioxide, on levels of protein and oxidative enzymes in cotton, Gossypium herbaceum L. C.B. 1697, leaf tissue was dependent upon generation of genetically uniform and physiologically similar leaves. Sufficient quantities of 2-4 week old leaves for experimental procedures were obtained from plants grown in a 1:1 perlite:vermiculite potting medium supplied with 20% Hoagland's nutrient and maintained in a controlled environment growth chamber under the following conditions: 16 hr day/8 hr night cycle, irradiances of 200-300 µE m⁻² sec⁻¹, 70% humidity, and 30°. Maximum yields of soluble protein (10-12 mg/g tissue) and active enzymes were obtained when freshly harvested leaves were crushed in liquid nitrogen and then homogenized in 0.1 M Tris-Cl, pH 6.9, containing 0.01 M isoascorbate and polyvinylpyrrolidone [2% (w/v) PVP-10 and 0.5 g dry Polyclar AT/g tissue]. Routinely 90% of the solubilized protein was obtained following centrifugation and chromatography on Sephadex G-50. Introduction of cotton plants into vinyl chambers of 95% humidity resulted in foliar symptoms of physiological stress, including chlorosis, cellular edema, leaf curling, and loss of turgidity. Of the oxidative enzymes analyzed, catalase activity decreased 30%, glycolate oxidase activity decreased 42%, and peroxidase. increased 89% while soluble protein decreased 27% in plants maintained in the high humidity for 5 days. Exposure of plants to 75% oxygen, 350 ppm carbon dioxide for 48 hr under these conditions resulted in a 70% increase in glutathione reductase and a 25% increase in malate dehydrogenase. Other enzymes, superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, glyoxylate reductase, and acid phosphatase, appeared to be independent of the oxygen treatment. When humidity was carefully controlled at 70%, treatment with 75% oxygen, 350 ppm carbon dioxide resulted in a 180% increase in glutathione reductase, an 85% increase in acid phosphatase, and a 22% increase in peroxidase. In the same experiment, catalase decreased by 32% and total soluble protein decreased by 15%. Activities of glyoxylate reductase and both cyanide-sensitive and insensitive superoxide dismutases appeared to be unaffected by the 75% oxygen treatment after 48 hr. Obviously the impact of humidity as a component of the regulation of metabolism in leaf tissue must be considered. It is concluded that oxidoreductase activities located in the chloroplast, peroxisome, and cytosol are not equally sensitive to high oxygen tensions, and effects of environmental oxygen are not restricted to oxidative enzymes. / Ph. D.

Maximizing productivity and profitability are the primary reasons for double-cropping soybean with small grain in the Mid-Atlantic, USA. Reduced double-crop yield can be attributed to: delayed planting that results in a shortened growing season and less vegetative growth; later-maturing cultivars that terminate main stem growth after flowering and have less growth and nodes; less soil moisture and plant-available nutrients due to small grain uptake; greater air and soil temperatures during vegetative stages that reduce early-season growth; and more favorable conditions for disease development during pod and seed formation. Field experiments were conducted in 2012 and 2013 in eastern Virginia to 1) evaluate cultivar stem growth habit, seeding rate, seed-applied inoculant, starter nitrogen (N) applied at planting, and foliar fungicide on soybean vegetative growth, total N uptake (TNU), seed yield and quality, and yield components; 2) determine the effect of starter N rate, applied with and without inoculant, on soybean vegetative growth, TNU, seed yield and quality, and yield components; and 3) evaluate the response of maturity group (MG) IV and V soybean cultivars to foliar fungicide. Greater seeding rates, inoculant, N, and fungicide typically were not required together to increase yield. Although cultivar interacted with other factors, early-maturing indeterminate 95Y01 yielded more than late-maturing determinate 95Y20 at 4 of 6 locations. Seeding rate interacted with other factors, but the greater seeding rate increased MG IV yield at 1 of 6 locations and decreased MG V yield at 2 of 6 locations. Starter N increased seed yield by 6 kg ha-1 per kg N applied until yield plateaued at 16 kg N ha-1, which continued to 31 kg N ha-1. When N rate was increased greater than 31 kg N ha-1, yield decreased. Fungicide increased yield for MG IV and V cultivars at 4 of 6 and 3 of 6 locations, respectively and prevented yield loss via mid- to late-season disease control, delayed leaf drop, and greater seed size. Optimum fungicide timing depended on environment and disease development. These data assisted in understanding agronomic inputs' combined or individual effects on double-crop soybean growth, canopy, N uptake, seed yield, and yield components. / Ph. D.

Os efeitos da aplicação foliar de fósforo (Pi) na condutância estomática (gs) e na fotossíntese (A), foram avaliados em genótipos de feijoeiro, A320, Carioca e Ouro Negro, cultivados em potes numa casa de vegetação. Este estudo foi feito durante o dia após a aplicação foliar de 10 g de Pi L-1, em plantas hidratadas, e durante um período de deficiência hídrica iniciada dois ou cinco dias após a aplicação. Durante o dia após a aplicação de Pi, não foi observado nenhuma diferença, entre os tratamentos com e sem Pi, nas trocas gasosas de ambas as cultivares. Durante a desidratação, a aplicação de Pi não causou aumento de gs, mas causou aumento de A, nas medições às 0900, 1200 e 1500 horas, nas cultivares (Carioca e Ouro Negro), mas com um efeito maior na cultivar Ouro Negro, principalmente às 1200 horas. A eficiência intrínseca do uso da água (EIUA) também foi superior nas plantas com suprimento foliar de Pi. Quanto aos componentes da produção, a aplicação de Pi causou aumento do número de vagens das plantas da cultivar Ouro Negro, sob desidratação. Portanto, a aplicação de Pi foliar pode reduzir o efeito de uma desidratação quando aplicado dois dias antes da suspensão da irrigação. Além disso, o potencial fotossintético (Ac) de Ouro Negro com Pi foi superior ao de A320, com e sem Pi, na seca máxima, e ao A320 sem Pi, na reidratação. A dissipação térmica, não fotoquímica (NPQ), do genótipo A320 sem Pi foi maior que com Pi e que a do Ouro Negro, com e sem Pi, na reidratação, provavelmente devido aos menores valores de A neste tratamento sem Pi. O uso de fosfato de amônio substituindo a uréia ou o sulfato de amônio, que são aplicados aos 25 DAE, é recomendável. / The effects of foliar Pi supplying (Pi) on stomatal conductance (gs) and photosynthesis (A) were measured in genotypes, A320, Carioca and Ouro Negro, grown under greenhouse condition. Measurements of gs and A were taken one day after Pi application (10 g L-1) on well-irrigated plants, and during drought stress period beginning two or five days after Pi supplying. During the day after Pi application, it was not observed any difference on gas exchange of genotypes (Carioca and Ouro Negro) due to the treatments with and without Pi. During water stress, the Pi supplying did not cause increase of gs, however, caused increase of A at 0900, 1200 and 1500 h in both genotypes. This effect was higher when considered Ouro Negro at 1200 h. The intrinsic water use efficiency (IWUE) was also increased in Pi-supplied plants. The Pi supplying caused increase on pod number of Ouro Negro plants under water deficit. These results suggest that the foliar Pi application may reduce the effect of water deficit on photosynthesis when supplied two days before the water withholding. In addition, the O2 evolution (Ac) on Ouro negro with extra Pi was higher than for A320, with or without Pi, at the last day of the mild water deficit, and it was higher than A 320 with extra Pi at rehydration. The non-photosynthetic quenching (NPQ), was higher for A320 without Pi at recovery, probably due to the smaller values of A at this treatment. The use of ammonium phosphate, instead of urea or ammonium sulphate to be applied as usual 25 DAS, is recommended.

A adubação equilibrada com nitrogênio e enxofre pode alterar a nutrição e produção das gramíneas forrageiras. Mediante as aplicações de combinações de doses de nitrogênio com doses de enxofre, objetivou-se avaliar os efeitos: a) nas frações desses nutrientes no solo e correlacionar com as quantidades acumuladas desses nutrientes pela Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu; b) nas variáveis de crescimento, concentração total e formas inorgânicas de nitrogênio e enxofre e relação N:S nas raízes da gramínea forrageira; c) no consumo e eficiência do uso da água pela gramínea; d) nas variáveis estruturais, produção de massa seca e na quantidade acumulada desses nutrientes no capim-marandu e, e) na diagnose nutricional de nitrogênio e enxofre no capim, buscando determinar os níveis críticos para esses nutrientes. Dois experimentos simultâneos foram conduzidos em casa de vegetação, um com e outro sem o capim-marandu, no período de setembro a dezembro de 2008, utilizando um solo classificado como Neossolo Quartzarênico. Cinco doses de nitrogênio (0; 100; 200; 300 e 400 mg dm-3) foram combinadas com cinco doses de enxofre (0; 10; 20; 30 e 40 mg dm-3) em um fatorial 52 fracionado, com quatro repetições. No experimento sem plantas verificou-se o efeito da adubação com doses de nitrogênio e enxofre nas frações desses nutrientes no solo. A adubação com nitrogênio aumentou as frações inorgânicas de nitrato e amônio, nitrogênio total hidrolisável, nitrogênio amoniacal hidrolisável, aminoaçúcar e nitrogênio não identificado. A aplicação de doses de enxofre incrementou enxofre-éster e o enxofre residual do solo. No experimento com plantas observou-se que o fornecimento de doses de nitrogênio com doses de enxofre aumentou a massa seca de raízes, as concentrações de enxofre, nitrato e sulfato nas raízes, enquanto o comprimento e a superfície radicular, concentrações de nitrogênio e de amônio e relação N:S no sistema radicular responderam significativamente às doses de nitrogênio. Ocorreu aumento no consumo e na eficiência do uso da água pelo capim com adubação combinada de doses de nitrogênio com doses de enxofre. Número de folhas, número de perfilhos, área foliar, massa seca da parte aérea e quantidade acumulada de nutrientes pela parte aérea do capim responderam significativamente à adubação nitrogenada no primeiro corte das plantas, mas houve a necessidade de adicionar o enxofre na adubação com nitrogênio para maximizar essas variáveis nos dois crescimentos seguintes do capim. Apenas a adubação com nitrogênio foi significativa no primeiro período de crescimento, enquanto as combinações de doses de nitrogênio com doses de enxofre foram significativas no segundo e terceiro períodos de crescimento para o valor SPAD, concentrações de nitrogênio e enxofre e relação N:S nas folhas diagnósticas do capim. Correlações significativas entre a concentração de nitrogênio nas folhas diagnósticas e o valor SPAD foram observadas para os três períodos de crescimento do capim. A falta de resposta ao enxofre no primeiro período de crescimento da gramínea mostrou a baixa demanda por esse nutriente nessa fase. Os benefícios da adubação nitrogenada foram maximizados pelo suprimento conjunto com enxofre nos dois períodos subseqüentes de crescimento do capim-marandu. / Nitrogen and sulphur balanced fertilization may change mineral nutrition and yield of forage grasses. Based on the supply of combinations of nitrogen and sulphur rates, the objectives were to evaluate the effects: a) in these nutrient fractions in the soil and to correlate this fractions with nitrogen and sulphur content in Brachiaria brizantha; b) the combination of nitrogen rates with sulphur rates on the root growth characteristics, in nitrogen and sulphur, total concentration and inorganic forms and N:S ratio in roots of the forage grass; c) on water consumption and efficient use by Marandu palisadegrass; d) on structural characteristics, aboveground forage yield and nutrient content in the grass and e) on nutritional diagnosis of these nutrients in the forage, trying to obtain the critical levels of these nutrients. Two experiments were carried out at the same time under greenhouse conditions, one with and one without the Marandu palisadegrass from September to December 2008, and the soil was an Entisol. Five nitrogen rates (0; 100; 200; 300 and 400 mg dm-3) were combined with five sulphur rates (0; 10; 20; 30 and 40 mg dm-3) in fractionated 52 factorial, with four replications. In the experiment without plants, the nitrogen and sulphur fertilization changed these nutrients fractions in the soil. Nitrogen fertilization increased inorganic fractions of nitrate and ammonium, hydrolyzable total nitrogen, hydrolyzable ammonium, amino sugars and unidentified nitrogen. Application of sulphur rates increased estersulphur and residual sulphur in the soil. In the experiment with plants, supply of both nitrogen and sulphur increased root dry matter production, total sulphur, nitrate and sulphate-sulphur concentrations, while for total root length and root surface area, total nitrogen and ammonium concentrations and N:S only ratio nitrogen rates had significant responses. Nitrogen and sulphur rates increased the water consumption and efficiency of use by grass. Numbers of leaves, number of tillers, leaf area, shoot dry masss and nitrogen content in the shoots of forage grass showed significant responses to nitrogen fertilization in the first growth period but it was necessary to add sulphur in the fertilization to maximize these variables for following two growth period of the grass. Only nitrogen fertilization was significant in the first growth period, while the combinations of nitrogen and sulphur rates were significant for the SPAD value, concentrations of nitrogen and sulphur and N:S ratio in diagnostic leaves of the grass. Significant correlation was observed for nitrogen concentration in diagnostic leaves and SPAD value the three growth periods. Sulphur demand by Marandu palissadegrass was low in the first growth period, but the nitrogen fertilization benefits were maximized by adding sulphur in the fertilization of this grass.

A adubação equilibrada com nitrogênio e enxofre pode alterar a nutrição e produção das gramíneas forrageiras. Mediante as aplicações de combinações de doses de nitrogênio com doses de enxofre, objetivou-se avaliar os efeitos: a) nas frações desses nutrientes no solo e correlacionar com as quantidades acumuladas desses nutrientes pela Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu; b) nas variáveis de crescimento, concentração total e formas inorgânicas de nitrogênio e enxofre e relação N:S nas raízes da gramínea forrageira; c) no consumo e eficiência do uso da água pela gramínea; d) nas variáveis estruturais, produção de massa seca e na quantidade acumulada desses nutrientes no capim-marandu e, e) na diagnose nutricional de nitrogênio e enxofre no capim, buscando determinar os níveis críticos para esses nutrientes. Dois experimentos simultâneos foram conduzidos em casa de vegetação, um com e outro sem o capim-marandu, no período de setembro a dezembro de 2008, utilizando um solo classificado como Neossolo Quartzarênico. Cinco doses de nitrogênio (0; 100; 200; 300 e 400 mg dm-3) foram combinadas com cinco doses de enxofre (0; 10; 20; 30 e 40 mg dm-3) em um fatorial 52 fracionado, com quatro repetições. No experimento sem plantas verificou-se o efeito da adubação com doses de nitrogênio e enxofre nas frações desses nutrientes no solo. A adubação com nitrogênio aumentou as frações inorgânicas de nitrato e amônio, nitrogênio total hidrolisável, nitrogênio amoniacal hidrolisável, aminoaçúcar e nitrogênio não identificado. A aplicação de doses de enxofre incrementou enxofre-éster e o enxofre residual do solo. No experimento com plantas observou-se que o fornecimento de doses de nitrogênio com doses de enxofre aumentou a massa seca de raízes, as concentrações de enxofre, nitrato e sulfato nas raízes, enquanto o comprimento e a superfície radicular, concentrações de nitrogênio e de amônio e relação N:S no sistema radicular responderam significativamente às doses de nitrogênio. Ocorreu aumento no consumo e na eficiência do uso da água pelo capim com adubação combinada de doses de nitrogênio com doses de enxofre. Número de folhas, número de perfilhos, área foliar, massa seca da parte aérea e quantidade acumulada de nutrientes pela parte aérea do capim responderam significativamente à adubação nitrogenada no primeiro corte das plantas, mas houve a necessidade de adicionar o enxofre na adubação com nitrogênio para maximizar essas variáveis nos dois crescimentos seguintes do capim. Apenas a adubação com nitrogênio foi significativa no primeiro período de crescimento, enquanto as combinações de doses de nitrogênio com doses de enxofre foram significativas no segundo e terceiro períodos de crescimento para o valor SPAD, concentrações de nitrogênio e enxofre e relação N:S nas folhas diagnósticas do capim. Correlações significativas entre a concentração de nitrogênio nas folhas diagnósticas e o valor SPAD foram observadas para os três períodos de crescimento do capim. A falta de resposta ao enxofre no primeiro período de crescimento da gramínea mostrou a baixa demanda por esse nutriente nessa fase. Os benefícios da adubação nitrogenada foram maximizados pelo suprimento conjunto com enxofre nos dois períodos subseqüentes de crescimento do capim-marandu. / Nitrogen and sulphur balanced fertilization may change mineral nutrition and yield of forage grasses. Based on the supply of combinations of nitrogen and sulphur rates, the objectives were to evaluate the effects: a) in these nutrient fractions in the soil and to correlate this fractions with nitrogen and sulphur content in Brachiaria brizantha; b) the combination of nitrogen rates with sulphur rates on the root growth characteristics, in nitrogen and sulphur, total concentration and inorganic forms and N:S ratio in roots of the forage grass; c) on water consumption and efficient use by Marandu palisadegrass; d) on structural characteristics, aboveground forage yield and nutrient content in the grass and e) on nutritional diagnosis of these nutrients in the forage, trying to obtain the critical levels of these nutrients. Two experiments were carried out at the same time under greenhouse conditions, one with and one without the Marandu palisadegrass from September to December 2008, and the soil was an Entisol. Five nitrogen rates (0; 100; 200; 300 and 400 mg dm-3) were combined with five sulphur rates (0; 10; 20; 30 and 40 mg dm-3) in fractionated 52 factorial, with four replications. In the experiment without plants, the nitrogen and sulphur fertilization changed these nutrients fractions in the soil. Nitrogen fertilization increased inorganic fractions of nitrate and ammonium, hydrolyzable total nitrogen, hydrolyzable ammonium, amino sugars and unidentified nitrogen. Application of sulphur rates increased estersulphur and residual sulphur in the soil. In the experiment with plants, supply of both nitrogen and sulphur increased root dry matter production, total sulphur, nitrate and sulphate-sulphur concentrations, while for total root length and root surface area, total nitrogen and ammonium concentrations and N:S only ratio nitrogen rates had significant responses. Nitrogen and sulphur rates increased the water consumption and efficiency of use by grass. Numbers of leaves, number of tillers, leaf area, shoot dry masss and nitrogen content in the shoots of forage grass showed significant responses to nitrogen fertilization in the first growth period but it was necessary to add sulphur in the fertilization to maximize these variables for following two growth period of the grass. Only nitrogen fertilization was significant in the first growth period, while the combinations of nitrogen and sulphur rates were significant for the SPAD value, concentrations of nitrogen and sulphur and N:S ratio in diagnostic leaves of the grass. Significant correlation was observed for nitrogen concentration in diagnostic leaves and SPAD value the three growth periods. Sulphur demand by Marandu palissadegrass was low in the first growth period, but the nitrogen fertilization benefits were maximized by adding sulphur in the fertilization of this grass.

Mit zunehmender Meereshöhe werden die Wachstumsbedingungen in tropischen Bergregionen im Allgemeinen ungünstiger, was sich in einer sinkenden Nährstoffverfügbarkeit, sinkenden Temperaturen und sinkendem CO2-Partialdruck zeigt. In tropischen Bergregenwäldern führen verminderte Abbauraten in größeren Höhen einerseits zu dicken organische Auflageschichten und andererseits in Kombination mit verminderten Mineralisierungs- und Nitrifizierungsraten zu Veränderungen in der Verfügbarkeit der verschiedenen Stickstoffformen, und es gibt Nachweise einer Limitierung der Produktivität dieser Wälder durch Stickstoff. Auf welche Weise sich die Photosynthesekapazität (Amax) tropischer Bäume einerseits und die Stickstoffaufnahmekapazität und Präferenz für einzelne Stickstoffformen andererseits an die veränderten Umweltbedingungen entlang von Höhengradienten adaptieren ist nicht genau bekannt. Die vorliegende Untersuchung wurde in drei tropischen Bergregenwäldern durchgeführt, die entlang eines Höhengradienten auf 1000, 2000 und 3000 m ü. NN in Südequador liegen. Das Ziel war es, (1) die Photosynthesekapazität ausgewachsener tropischer Bäume entlang eines Höhengradienten mit Hilfe von Gaswechselmessungen zu bestimmen und die Effekte von Temperatur, CO2-Partialdruck und Nährstoffverfügbarkeit auf die Photosynthese zu quantifizieren und (2) Veränderungen in der Verwendung von Nitrat, Ammonium und organischen Stickstoffquellen durch tropische Waldbäume mit der Meereshöhe mittels einer Tracer-Untersuchung mit stabilen Isotopen an Jungpflanzen zu untersuchen. Mittelwerte der lichtgesättigten Photosyntheserate (Asat) auf Bestandeseben betrugen 8.8, 11.3 und 7.2 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1, die der Dunkelatmung (RD) 0.8, 0.6 und 0.7 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 jeweils auf 1000, 2000 and 3000 m Meereshöhe, ohne einen signifikanten Höhentrend. Die Einordnung unserer Daten in den Kontext eines pantropischen Asat-Datensatzes von tropischen Bäumen (c. 170 Arten an 18 Standorten unterschiedlicher Meereshöhe) zeigte, dass das flächenbezogene Asat in tropischen Bergen im Mittel 1.3 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 pro km Höhenzunahme abnimmt (bzw. 0.2 µmol CO2 m-2 s-1 pro K Temperaturabnahme). Die Abnahme von Asat trat auf, obwohl die Blattmasse je Fläche mit der Höhe zunahm. Eine verminderte Photosyntheserate und eine reduzierte Bestandesblattfläche bewirken gemeinsam eine Verringerung der Kohlenstoffaufnahme des Kronenraums mit der Meereshöhe in tropischen Bergregionen. Der Phosphorgehalt pro Blattmasse war der Faktor, der Amax entlang des Höhengradienten hauptsächlich beeinflusste, während die Effekte von Blattstickstoff, Temperatur und CO2-Partialdruck nicht signifikant waren. Amax erfuhr einen teilweisen und RD einen vollständigen homöostatischen Ausgleich als Reaktion auf die Verminderung von Temperatur und CO2-Partialdruck in größeren Höhen, was hauptsächlich durch eine stark reduzierte spezifische Blattfläche (SLA) und die daraus entstehende Zunahme von Blattstickstoff und -phosphor je Blattfläche bedingt war, während keine Zunahme der Karboxylierungseffizienz festgestellt wurde. Wir schlussfolgern, dass die Verminderung von SLA und Gesamtblattfläche mit der Meereshöhe die Kohlenstoffaufnahme von tropischen Wäldern in großen Meereshöhen deutlich stärker bestimmen als adaptive physiologische Modifizierungen des Photsyntheseapparates. Jungpflanzen von sechs Baumarten unterschieden sich hinsichtlich ihrer Präferenz für verschieden Stickstoffformen, allerdings schienen weder das Amonium- und Nitratvorkommen im Boden noch die Meereshöhe die Präferenz zu beeinflussen. Zwei Arten (jeweils die, mit den höchsten Wachstumsraten) bevorzugten Amonium gegenüber Nitrat, während die restlichen vier Arten Nitrat und Amonium mit ähnlichen Raten aufnahmen, wenn beide Stickstofformen verfügbar waren. Nach der Gabe von 15N13C-Glyzin zeigte sich bei drei Arten eine signifikante Akkumulierung von 13C in der Biomasse (zwei Arten mit arbuskulären Mykorrhiza und eine Art mit Ektomykorrhiza) zusätzlich zu einer signifikanten Akkumulierung von 15N, was darauf hindeutet, dass Bäume in tropischen Bergregenwäldern organische Stickstoffverbindungen unabhängig vom Typ ihrer Mykorrhizierung aufnehmen können.

El objetivo general de esta tesis fue estudiar si la demora en la senescencia foliar (carácter stay-green, SG) en híbridos de maíz confiere tolerancia del rendimiento al estrés abiótico. Se realizaron ensayos a campo utilizando híbridos contrastantes en la senescencia foliar. Se registró la evolución de la senescencia, la producción neta de fotoasimilados, el rendimiento y sus componentes. Bajo sequía en post-floración, los genotipos SG presentaron mayor producción de fotoasimilados y esto se relacionó con mayor conductancia estomática y con la retención de área foliar verde (AFV). Esta ventaja se tradujo en mayor rendimiento (a través de un mayor peso de grano, PG) en dos ensayos; en el tercer ensayo los genotipos SG presentaron menor partición a espiga por lo que el rendimiento no se diferenció del grupo de híbridos no stay-green (NSG). En condiciones de deficiencias de N, los genotipos SG presentaron mayor producción de fotoasimilados en post-floración mientras las temperaturas mínimas se mantuvieron por encima de 10°C, pero pérdidas netas de materia seca por debajo de este umbral que no se observaron en los genotipos NSG o con mayor nivel de fertilización. El carácter SG no se relacionó con el rendimiento o con el PG a bajo nivel de N (18 kg de N ha-1) pero sí al aumentar la dosis de fertilización (100 y 200 kg de N ha-1). En condiciones de estrés por alta densidad poblacional, se compararon dos genotipos. El genotipo SG presentó menor producción de asimilados, y menor inducción de la senescencia de las hojas basales por sombreo. El genotipo SG demoró la senescencia aún cuando la absorción de N en post-floración fue menor que en el genotipo NSG. El PG se relacionó con la concentración de N en granos, y ambos fueron menores en el genotipo SG, resultando en menor rendimiento. En un tercer ensayo, se incorporaron dos genotipos adicionales. En uno de ellos, el carácter SG se mantuvo sólo en las hojas superiores; éste genotipo SG presentó mayor PG y rendimiento en comparación con los otros tres. Finalmente, se analizó la degradación de proteínas foliares durante el llenado. La degradación de proteínas se relacionó positivamente con el PG en condiciones de deficiencias de N pero inversamente cuando las plantas se fertilizaron con 200 kg N ha-1. Uno de los genotipos SG mostró muy escasa degradación de proteínas mientras que en otro SG la degradación aumentó en respuesta a las deficiencias de N. En conclusión, la contribución del carácter SG a la estabilidad del rendimiento depende de la capacidad que presenten los genotipos SG para ajustar la expresión del carácter en función del ambiente (por ejemplo, induciendo la senescencia en respuesta al sombreo, o por deficiencias de N edáfico).

The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) has great importance in human nutrition where it occupies the fourth place among the most consumed foods in the world. It is a highly demanding culture technology especially in the nutritional point of view. Despite the titanium (Ti) is not considered a nutrient, studies have shown beneficial effects of this element when applied to plants. The application of Ti leaf can be an alternative for this element is slightly movable in the soil and is generally present in insoluble forms. Thus, the objective was to evaluate the influence of application rates of Ti foliar in the potato crop. We conducted an experiment in the period from August to November 2014, installed at the experimental station Udi Pesquisa e Development in Uberlândia-MG, with kind Ágata. Variables related to metabolism were evaluated: SPAD chlorophyll content, nitrate reductase activity (NRA), lipid peroxidation (LP), urease, proline, catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD). Nutritional factors such as levels of nutrients nitrogen (N), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) present in leaves and tubers were measured stages of growth, tuber and tuber filling. At the end of the crop cycle was quantified the average mass, diameter, commercial classification and productivity of tubers. The design was a randomized block design with four replications and six treatments. The supply of the Ti compound fertilizer was through for 5% of magnesium oxide, 10% sulfur trioxide and 0,85% titanium complex and the treatments was: T1 - without the application of Ti, T2 -10.2; T3 - 15.3; T4 - 20.4; T5 - 22.9 and T6 - 25.5 g Ti ha-1 divided into three equal applications during the growth phase, tuber and tuber filling. It was concluded that in the growth phase the foliar application of Ti reduces the Mn content in the leaves and there is increased activity of POD and ANR and reduced urease activity. In the tuberization phase the Fe absorption, SOD activity and POD response to increasing Ti dose. In tubers filling stage foliar application of Ti increases chlorophyll levels (Spad value). The application of Ti in the leaf growth stages, tuber and tuber filler results in a lower Zn content in the tubers. The average tuber weight, the average diameter of tubers and the total productivity of tubers are affected by foliar application of Ti. The dose Ti foliar applied for further tuber yield is 5.74 g Ti ha-1. / A batata (Solanum tuberosum L.) tem grande importância na alimentação humana onde ocupa o quarto lugar entre os alimentos mais consumido no mundo. É uma cultura altamente exigente em tecnologias especialmente sob o ponto de vista nutricional. Apesar do titânio (Ti) não ser considerado um nutriente, trabalhos demonstram efeitos benéficos deste elemento quando aplicado às plantas. A aplicação de Ti foliar pode ser uma alternativa pois este elemento é pouco móvel no solo e geralmente está presente em formas insolúveis. Desta forma, objetivou-se avaliar a influência da aplicação de doses de Ti via foliar na cultura da batata. Realizou-se um experimento no período de agosto a novembro de 2014, instalado na estação experimental Udi Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento em Uberlândia-MG, com utilização da cultivar Ágata. As variáveis relacionadas ao metabolismo avaliadas foram: teor clorofila SPAD, atividade da nitrato redutase (ANR), peroxidação lipídica (PL), urease, prolina, catalase (CAT), superóxido desmutase (SOD) e peroxidase (POD). Aspectos nutricionais como os teores dos nutrientes nitrogênio (N), cobre (Cu), ferro (Fe), manganês (Mn) e zinco (Zn) presentes em folhas e tubérculos foram mensurados fases de crescimento, tuberização e enchimento de tubérculos. Ao final do ciclo da cultura foi quantificada a massa média, diâmetro médio, classificação comercial e a produtividade dos tubérculos. O delineamento foi o de blocos casualizados, com quatro repetições e seis tratamentos. O fornecimento do Ti foi através de fertilizante composto por 5% de óxido de magnésio, 10% de trioxido enxofre e 0,85% de complexo de titânio com os seguintes tratamentos: T1 sem aplicação de Ti, T2 -10,2; T3 -15,3; T4 - 20,4; T5 - 22,9 e T6 - 25,5 g de Ti ha-1 divididos em três aplicações iguais durante a fase de crescimento, tuberização e enchimento de tubérculos. Concluiu-se que os teores de Cu não são influenciados pelas doses de Ti nas fases avaliadas. Na fase de crescimento a aplicação foliar de Ti reduz o teor de Mn nas folhas e há aumento da atividade da POD e ANR e redução da atividade da urease. Na fase de tuberização a absorção de Fe e atividade de enzimas SOD e POD tem resposta ao aumento da dose de Ti. Na fase de enchimento de tubérculos a aplicação foliar de Ti incrementa os teores de clorofila (valor Spad). A aplicação de Ti foliar nas fases de crescimento, tuberização e enchimento de tubérculos resulta em menor teor de Zn nos tubérculos. A massa média de tubérculos, o diâmetro médio de tubérculos e a produtividade total de tubérculos são influenciados pela aplicação foliar de Ti. A dose de Ti aplicada via foliar para maior produtividade de tubérculos é de 5,74 g de Ti ha-1. / Mestre em Agronomia