Doctor of Education / Department of Educational Leadership / Sarah Jane Fishback / This qualitative case study sought to understand in what formative ways instructors in one teaching department of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College (CGSC) used common summative assessments and what similar practices instructors used as a result of common summative assessments. This research analyzed data from semi-structured interviews with purposefully selected participants, instructors in the Department of Army Tactics at CGSC, a representative mixture of civilian and active duty. This research confirmed that the formative use of summative assessments was typical among Department of Army tactics instructors and that continued or expanded formative use of summative assessments will increase student learning. Because so much of assessment is context dependent, this research will add to the body of knowledge in a particular area that the current literature did not fully address; the formative use of common summative assessments in higher education. Four conclusions were drawn from analysis of this research. First, the formative use of common summative assessments, especially feedback given to students, was typical of the Department of Army Tactics instructor, essentially a normal part of the assessment process. Second, DTAC instructors did not have a common understanding of the difference between summative and formative assessment, how they used the information gathered was more important than what the instrument was labeled. Third, “teaching to the curriculum” instead of “teaching the test” was typical in DTAC, an indication that the instructors saw their role beyond just preparing students for upcoming assessments. Fourth, the stratification of students during the grading process was typical, with the unintended consequence of students not being judged on quality of work alone.

This thesis grounds the design of learning technologies in cognitive learning theory to explore deeper formative measurement of the learning process. This work implements Graspable Math (GM; Ottmar, Landy, Weitnauer, Goldstone, 2015), a dynamic learning technology that has been designed using perceptual-motor learning theory, which has been shown to have a strong connection to mathematical reasoning (Kirshner, 1989; Kellman, Massey, & Son, 2010; Goldstone, Landy, & Son, 2010). With this dynamic mathematics learning technology, we can measure the algebraic problem solving process in ways that are not possible with pencil and paper or other more traditional learning technologies. By collecting this data, this research will explore how to move beyond traditional correctness-based assessment and design more formative measures of the learning process. This work provides a rich perspective on the evolution of research on mathematical proficiency, how this research is applied in practice, and an in-depth example of how one technology-based learning environment has been developed to measure mathematical proficiency. This work has three main objectives: 1) develop a theoretical framework to assess mathematical proficiency within GM, 2) explore GM-based measures of mathematical proficiency across K-12 populations, and 3) design GM-based tools that are grounded in theory on mathematical proficiency. This work first presents a conceptual model that maps student behavior data measured through GM onto the five theoretical strands of mathematical proficiency as defined by the National Research Council’s 2001 publication, Adding it Up. The first study reveals underlying constructs in Elementary student data and suggests there is an added benefit of including these formative measures within predictive models. Above and beyond background characteristics and summative measures of knowledge, formative measures of the learning process revealed subtle interactions based on student behaviors and prior knowledge. These constructs also show potential in mapping onto certain strands of mathematical proficiency. The second study compares underlying constructs within Elementary data to High School data using exploratory factor analysis and finds similar factors across both populations. These results suggest that certain constructs may underlie different age groups and have the potential to be used as measures of mathematical proficiency. While the first two sections describe the definition and measurement of mathematical proficiency within GM, the final section explores the implementation of these measures within the design process of new GM-based activities for students and tools for teachers. Ultimately, the goal of this work is to serve as an example method for other researchers, educators, and designers to move beyond summative measures of assessment and enhance the formative assessment capabilities of learning technologies by grounding measures in theories of learning.

This study analyzed the required inclusion of school test scores in the yearly evaluation of school principals within the current school reform and standards and accountability movements of both the federal and state departments of education. Extant data from a single school district in Oregon was used for this study, and included: (a) district-wide elementary principal summative performance evaluation scores, (b) district-wide fourth and fifth grade fall and spring reading curriculum-based measures scores curriculum-based measures, (c) 2013 and 2014 spring reading scores from the Oregon Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (OAKS-R), and (d) student demographic variables. The student non-academic predictor variables (demographic risk factors) included in the study were (a) attendance, (b) English Language Proficiency (ELP), (c) Free and Reduced Meals (FARMS), (d) percent Other-than-White, and (e) Special Education. Multiple regression analyses were used to determine which assessment and/or non-assessment factors accounted for differences between principals’ summative evaluation scores. The results indicated that Summative Principal Ratings are poor predictors of the academic success of all students whether using large-scale summative assessment (OAKS-R) or formative assessments (easyCBM), with all measures only accounting for a miniscule portion of the Summative Principal Rating variance. However, demographic variables were slightly more related to the Summative Principal Rating. Practical implications of using student test scores to hold principals accountable for the academic results of all students are discussed in relation to district administrative policy and placement procedures for administrators and teachers, examining the behaviors and practices of teachers’ whose students have shown the most gains, and using these successful teacher practices a basis for teacher-to-teacher district-wide professional development. Finally, suggestions for future research in the areas of improving principal evaluation systems and the study of direct and indirect impacts principals have on student success and achievements are discussed.

The study examined the relationship between grade five natural sciences teachers’ perceptions and their use of questioning for formative assessment (FA). Literature indicates that formative assessment improves both teaching and learning. This study was conducted with thirty-three teachers from a district in Gauteng Province. They responded to a questionnaire in which they gave their opinions about questions and formative assessment. Their responses were documented quantitatively. Lesson observations were also conducted in two teachers’ classes, in the same district, to establish the relationship between questioning practices and perceptions. Teacher questions were quantitatively analysed using Anderson/Bloom’s Taxonomy (2005). Lesson transcripts and field notes of the recorded lessons were qualitatively analysed and discussed in themes. Findings based on the questionnaire indicated that most teachers had a poor understanding of formative assessment and were unaware of its teaching and learning benefits. In practice, the two observed teachers mostly used factual and conceptual knowledge questions but worked differently with learner responses. The observations indicate that questions, irrespective of their categorisation, could be more effectively used for formative assessment purposes. The study indicated that teachers believed that a role is played in the questioning practices by, for instance, learner language competency, socio-economic factors and lack of teacher reflection.

Research has shown that giving quality feedback to students, which is an aspect of formative assessment, is a high-yield strategy that educators can use to advance academic achievement and support students in their learning process. The study took place in a Virginia school division where formative assessment was not a division-wide initiative used to increase student achievement. Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative case study was to identify the perceptions of teachers and students concerning formative feedback and distinguish the types of written feedback that may influence student learning. Bandura's social cognitive theory of self-efficacy and motivation provided the conceptual framework for this study. Teachers' and students' perspectives and student work samples were analyzed to determine the types of feedback that influenced students' learning in mathematics and to gain an understanding of teachers' and students' perceptions of written formative feedback. Data were collected through interviews with 10 elementary teachers and 20 elementary third through fifth grade students at 2 elementary schools and by collecting 318 work samples of these students. Themes emerged from inductive coding, and teachers' feedback was categorized using a feedback typology to determine the types of feedback teachers gave students. The teachers' and students' understanding of written formative feedback varied but both groups found written descriptive feedback aligned with learning outcomes were most beneficial. The results could serve to improve professional development for teachers on formative feedback, which could increase student learning.

Inconsistent math assessment practices do not accurately represent and communicate student mathematics achievement. Because of inconsistencies in assessment practices, local middle school mathematics teachers in an urban school district in the northwestern United States piloted the use of multiple formative assessments. The purpose of this study was to compare mathematics achievement, growth, and course percentage grades for students who have multiple formative assessment attempts compared to students who are not provided multiple assessment attempts. Theoretical foundations originated from Black and Wiliam, supporting the use of formative assessment for a positive impact on student learning. A quantitative, ex post facto quasi-experimental design was used. The research question focused on the statistical differences in course percentage grade, state standardized testing score, and growth score on state standardized math tests between groups of students who were allowed multiple formative assessment options and those who were not. Data were analyzed using an independent samples t test and a one-way MANOVA, which showed a statistically significant difference for student course percentage grade. Findings were used to produce a 3-day professional development program supporting teachers' use of formative assessment in mathematics classes. The findings will inform educational stakeholders' decisions regarding the use of multiple assessment attempts and differences between this specific formative assessment strategy and student mathematics assessment performance to promote positive social change. Positive social changes may include increased awareness of how multiple assessments may affect student growth, course percentage grades, and state testing scores.

A key purpose of this qualitative study was to gain an understanding of classroom teachers' perceptions of the value and impact of formative assessment in secondary schools in Solomon Islands. The process of data collection included initial interviews with five classroom teachers selected from four secondary schools in Honiara, Solomon Islands. The interviews were conducted using semistructured interviews with each of the teachers and ended with a focus group conversation. The findings of this study indicated that formative assessment, as a classroom strategy, does have a place in secondary schools in Solomon Islands. Assessment for learning (AfL) is currently employed by these teachers, but the form of formative assessment as reported being used in Solomon Islands secondary school classrooms is limited by policies, systems and methods employed by schools. This study suggests that if classroom teachers are to become effective 'mediators of learning' they must have a better theoretical understanding of social constructivism and metacognition. Otherwise, assessment will always sit outside the process of learning, and classroom teachers and learners will always play traditional rather than contemporary roles in the learning and teaching (and assessment) process. For improvements to be made in areas highlighted in this study, focus must be on teacher knowledge and ability and the policies and practices of schools. Unless teachers, students, parents and policymakers see and value the potential of formative assessment, it will continue to be underemphasized, under-valued and under-used.

<p>Syftet med vår studie var att beskriva och analysera hur en grupp specialpedagoger arbetar med formativ undervisning. Formativ undervisning kan enligt aktuella forskningsresultat ha positiva effekter på svagpresterande elevers lärande. Vi har observerat sex specialpedagoger i deras verksamhet. Dessa sex har också sedan intervjuats. Samtliga informanter arbetar med elever i skolåren 6-9. Det är den empiri samt relevant litteratur som examensarbetet bygger på. Resultatet visade att formativ undervisning förekom i väldigt liten utsträckning. Det visade också att de specialpedagoger som ingick i vår studie inte var förtrogna med begreppet formativ undervisning. Den pedagogiska forskning som finns i ämnet är utförd i olika klassrumssituationer. Vår undersökning visar på svårigheter att överföra den till den typ av undervisningssituation som specialpedagogerna i vår studie arbetar i.</p>

Syftet med vår studie var att beskriva och analysera hur en grupp specialpedagoger arbetar med formativ undervisning. Formativ undervisning kan enligt aktuella forskningsresultat ha positiva effekter på svagpresterande elevers lärande. Vi har observerat sex specialpedagoger i deras verksamhet. Dessa sex har också sedan intervjuats. Samtliga informanter arbetar med elever i skolåren 6-9. Det är den empiri samt relevant litteratur som examensarbetet bygger på. Resultatet visade att formativ undervisning förekom i väldigt liten utsträckning. Det visade också att de specialpedagoger som ingick i vår studie inte var förtrogna med begreppet formativ undervisning. Den pedagogiska forskning som finns i ämnet är utförd i olika klassrumssituationer. Vår undersökning visar på svårigheter att överföra den till den typ av undervisningssituation som specialpedagogerna i vår studie arbetar i.

The purpose of the qualitative study titled An Investigation of Formative and Summative Portfolio Assessment Methods, is to explore the experiences of a self-described eclectic, primarily constructivist writing instructor who employs portfolio assessment methods in post-secondary writing classes taught to pre or in-service writing teachers. This Action Research study focuses retrospectively on the experiences of the instructors formative and summative assessment of post-secondary writing portfolios. The study also explores theoretical grounding of which educators are often not consciously aware and adds insight into the existing body of knowledge on portfolio assessment practices.<p>The research question is as follows: How does a post-secondary writing instructor employ formative and summative portfolio assessment methods within a constructivist writing community and how does s/he describe the teaching/learning relationship that consequently develops? <p>The goal of the study is to explore in depth one instructors experiences in post-secondary writing courses. I used the following questions as a guideline. <br> to discover how the instructor uses a formative portfolio assessment process of teaching to positively affect the development of writerly skills in a constructivist writing community<br> to discover how the instructor uses summative portfolio assessment of writing to provide accountable end-of-term numerical ranking of student achievement for educational institutions<br> to describe the perspective of a constructivist writing instructor on the use of formative and summative portfolio assessment practices at the post-secondary level<br> to discover the effect formative and summative processes and the constructivist writing community has on the teacher/student relationship <p>Upon analysis of the interview transcripts, I found that teaching, for my participant, is a colourful tapestry that stands alone as her well-crafted teaching practice, but can also be viewed as 4 distinct panels that fit seamlessly together. These four themes are: <br>1. Portfolio evaluation of writing provides for the Constructivist conditions for learning as identified by Driscoll (2000).<br>2. Portfolio evaluation is most effective when built on a foundation of Community within a group of writing students.<br>3. Portfolio evaluation promotes balanced transactional experiences that result in transformation for both student and teacher.<br>4. Portfolio evaluation of writing, as a teaching practice, shows promise for the successful education of marginalized students. <p> I also found that this research has only rippled the surface of a pool of anecdotal knowledge that invites full immersion. I am drawn to further exploration, discussion, development, implementation and assessment of models of formative evaluation that will benefit our students of writing. To this end I have included recommendations for further study specifically aimed at exploring the promising practices of portfolio evaluation for marginalized peoples, most particularly First Nations, Métis and Inuit students, at various levels of education, including primary, secondary and post-secondary levels.