This study contributes to the growing body of formulaic language research that indicates that formulaic sequences (e.g., idioms, collocations, metaphors, and other conventionalized multi-word items) facilitate comprehension by reducing processing load (Wray, 2002). Expanding on Underwood et. al. (2004), this study combines corpus analysis and eye-movement data to assess the contribution of formulaicity to the comprehension of a whole, authentic text.Information regarding grammatical, lexical, and contextual conventions for each formulaic item in the text was obtained via the Collins COBUILD Online Corpus and the British National Corpus. Additionally, using an Applied Science Laboratories Eye Tracker, the eye movements of two native speakers and one non-native speaker of English were recorded and the fixations for formulaic sequences were compared. All eye movement data was interpreted in light of Goodman's Transactional model of reading (2003). Specifically, eye movements for each participant were compared across two conditions: 1) a condition comprised of the formulaic sequences in the text and 2) a baseline segment from the text which was free of formulaic items. Paired t-tests were performed for each participant to determine whether or not the eye movement behavior differed significantly in the two conditions. Data analysis indicates that both native and non-native readers of English showed significant differences in the eye movement patterns for the two conditions. However, these significant differences were reversed for the two participant groups. In the case of the native readers, the predictable nature of formulaic sequences facilitated the processing of written text, as evidenced by a significantly lower percentage of words fixated in the formulaic sequences in comparison with the percent of words fixated in the baseline condition. However, for the non-native readers, 1) lack of experience with the formulaic items and 2) their opaque nature appeared to hinder comprehension, resulting in a significantly higher percentage of words fixated in the formulaic condition than in the baseline, non-formulaic condition. This dissertation has implications for the fields of first and second language acquisition, particularly literacy theory and instruction.

<p><strong>Abstract</strong></p><p> </p><p>The aim of this study is to look at the use of formulaic language, i.e. memorized and conventionalized combinations of words, in essays written by Swedish intermediate level students of English. Drawing on previous research (Cohen and Brooks -Carson 2001) this study will apply a method of “warming up” in Swedish (L1) before writing in English (L2). The primary material includes thirty essays written directly in English, and thirty essays starting from an outline in Swedish and then written in English, by the same students but on a different topic.</p><p>Since there is evidence that native speakers always score the highest on amount of formulaic language in written discourse, the main hypothesis of this study is that by starting from an outline in Swedish and then writing in English the students will make use of more formulaic language than when writing directly in English. The first research question involves the quantity of formulaic language in the students’ essays. The second question concerns the distribution and use of the different categories of FSs (NPs, VPs etc) in the direct and indirect modes of writing. The last question addresses the erroneous attempts made by the students in forming FSs and the possible influence of transfer from L1 in the essays starting from an outline in Swedish compared to the essays written directly in English.</p><p>The findings of this study lend support to the main hypothesis. Moreover, the analysis shows that there are significant differences in the distribution and use of the different categories of formulaic language in the direct and indirect modes of writing. Results are suggestive of a more conscious and less uncertain approach in the essays starting from an outline in Swedish, however the findings may be circumstantial. Furthermore, the results indicate that the method of “warming up” in Swedish may encourage the use of combinations of words that are more conventionalized and do not always interact with syntax in a regular way. The findings also indicate that transfer is not more salient in the essays starting from an outline in Swedish if compared to the essays written directly in English, at least not in relation to the erroneous FSs found in the students’ essays.</p><p> </p><p>Keywords: <em>formulaic sequences, conventionalization, contrastive awareness, language processing, language acquisition.</em></p>

The aim of this study is to look at the use of formulaic language, i.e. memorized and conventionalized combinations of words, in essays written by Swedish intermediate level students of English. Drawing on previous research (Cohen and Brooks -Carson 2001) this study will apply a method of “warming up” in Swedish (L1) before writing in English (L2). The primary material includes thirty essays written directly in English, and thirty essays starting from an outline in Swedish and then written in English, by the same students but on a different topic. Since there is evidence that native speakers always score the highest on amount of formulaic language in written discourse, the main hypothesis of this study is that by starting from an outline in Swedish and then writing in English the students will make use of more formulaic language than when writing directly in English. The first research question involves the quantity of formulaic language in the students’ essays. The second question concerns the distribution and use of the different categories of FSs (NPs, VPs etc) in the direct and indirect modes of writing. The last question addresses the erroneous attempts made by the students in forming FSs and the possible influence of transfer from L1 in the essays starting from an outline in Swedish compared to the essays written directly in English. The findings of this study lend support to the main hypothesis. Moreover, the analysis shows that there are significant differences in the distribution and use of the different categories of formulaic language in the direct and indirect modes of writing. Results are suggestive of a more conscious and less uncertain approach in the essays starting from an outline in Swedish, however the findings may be circumstantial. Furthermore, the results indicate that the method of “warming up” in Swedish may encourage the use of combinations of words that are more conventionalized and do not always interact with syntax in a regular way. The findings also indicate that transfer is not more salient in the essays starting from an outline in Swedish if compared to the essays written directly in English, at least not in relation to the erroneous FSs found in the students’ essays.

abstract: ABSTRACT The teaching of formulaic sequences (FSs) to improve speech fluency is a time honored tradition in the field of English as a Second Language (ESL). However, recent research seems to indicate that certain discourse markers, specifically transition and personal stance markers, are more useful than other FSs. This study is an attempt to partially replicate (on a very small scale) one of these studies to see if the findings are similar when the standardized test materials are from the Test Of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) rather than the International English Language Testing System (IELTS). The hope is that teacher researchers could have access to readily available, standardized assessment materials with which to create their own research studies consisting of a standardized pretest and posttest. Four students of various levels in an Intensive English Program (IEP) were given a practice listening and speaking exam utilizing TOEFL preparation materials found online. The results were analyzed to see if there was a noticeable correlation between the use of the specified discourse markers on the speech portion of the test and the performance of the students on the listening portion of the test. The findings show some discrepancy between the two studies' results. It appears possible to have a high perceived fluency rate and still have a lower overall speaking fluency when taking into account listening comprehension and various other measures. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. English 2014

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(人間・環境学) / 甲第21866号 / 人博第895号 / 新制||人||214(附属図書館) / 2018||人博||895(吉田南総合図書館) / 京都大学大学院人間・環境学研究科共生人間学専攻 / (主査)准教授 中森 誉之, 教授 服部 文昭, 准教授 PETERSON Mark / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Human and Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DFAM

Native speakers often ignore the limitless potential of language and stick to institutionalized formulaic sequences. These sequences are stored and processed as wholes, rather than as the individual words and grammatical rules which make them up. Due to research on formulaic sequence in spoken language, English as a Second Language / Foreign Language pedagogy has begun to follow suit. There has been a call for a shift from the traditional focus on isolated grammar and vocabulary to formulaic sequences and context. I tested this hypothesis with 19 L2 English learners who received 5 weeks of task-based instruction and found substantial progress in oral fluency only for the experimental group. Differences between pretest and posttest oral fluency were examined by looking at the learners' speech rate and their mean length of run. Subjective evaluation of fluency by 16 native English judges confirmed the calculated measures.

<p>This study investigates the use of formulaic language in spoken French produced by native and non-native speakers. It aims at describing the development of formulaic sequences in learners ranging from beginners to very advanced users. It draws on data from the InterFra corpus, which includes both formal and semi-formal learners. Four measures are used to characterize this development: extent of formulaic language used, category distribution, type / token ratio and frequency of types. </p><p>It has been shown that a user’s knowledge of formulaic sequences impacts heavily on language proficiency and idiomaticity. Because these sequences follow neither grammatical nor lexical rules, they constitute the last threshold for advanced L2 learners. In second language acquisition, the term formulaic sequence not only applies to strict idiomatic constructions, but it is also used to refer to sequences that appear to be acquired in a holistic manner during the first phases of acquisition. A categorization is therefore proposed that can account for native and non-native usage of formulaic sequences (prefabs). Five categories of prefabs are included: Lexical, Grammatical, Discourse, Situational and Idiosyncratic. </p><p>The extent of a learner’s use of formulaic language increases as the learner progresses, the largest amount found in the production of native speakers and very advanced learners. The learner’s distribution of categories moves towards native speaker distribution, albeit slowly. Situational and Idiosyncratic prefabs are found to characterize the early phases of acquisition, while Lexical prefabs are mastered later and are a major difficulty for L2 learners. Only very advanced learners who have spent considerable time in France produce the same proportion of Lexical prefabs as native speakers. Discourse prefabs constitute the most important category for all groups, including natives and non-natives. It can therefore be postulated that the main function of formulaic sequences in spoken French is that of discourse structuring and speech management. The development and use of formulaic language is explained within a framework of Frequency Effects. Coupled with other factors, frequency can account for why Lexical prefabs are hard to acquire and why formulaic sequences take a long time to master.</p> / The thesis is published and can be purchased by Peter Lang http://www.peterlang.com/index.cfm?vID=11369&vLang=E&vHR=1&vUR=1&vUUR=38

This study investigates the use of formulaic language in spoken French produced by native and non-native speakers. It aims at describing the development of formulaic sequences in learners ranging from beginners to very advanced users. It draws on data from the InterFra corpus, which includes both formal and semi-formal learners. Four measures are used to characterize this development: extent of formulaic language used, category distribution, type / token ratio and frequency of types. It has been shown that a user’s knowledge of formulaic sequences impacts heavily on language proficiency and idiomaticity. Because these sequences follow neither grammatical nor lexical rules, they constitute the last threshold for advanced L2 learners. In second language acquisition, the term formulaic sequence not only applies to strict idiomatic constructions, but it is also used to refer to sequences that appear to be acquired in a holistic manner during the first phases of acquisition. A categorization is therefore proposed that can account for native and non-native usage of formulaic sequences (prefabs). Five categories of prefabs are included: Lexical, Grammatical, Discourse, Situational and Idiosyncratic. The extent of a learner’s use of formulaic language increases as the learner progresses, the largest amount found in the production of native speakers and very advanced learners. The learner’s distribution of categories moves towards native speaker distribution, albeit slowly. Situational and Idiosyncratic prefabs are found to characterize the early phases of acquisition, while Lexical prefabs are mastered later and are a major difficulty for L2 learners. Only very advanced learners who have spent considerable time in France produce the same proportion of Lexical prefabs as native speakers. Discourse prefabs constitute the most important category for all groups, including natives and non-natives. It can therefore be postulated that the main function of formulaic sequences in spoken French is that of discourse structuring and speech management. The development and use of formulaic language is explained within a framework of Frequency Effects. Coupled with other factors, frequency can account for why Lexical prefabs are hard to acquire and why formulaic sequences take a long time to master. / The thesis is published and can be purchased by Peter Lang http://www.peterlang.com/index.cfm?vID=11369&vLang=E&vHR=1&vUR=1&vUUR=38

This work explores various methods teachers can use to promote high quality second language oral production. It consists of a review of empirical research and pedagogical implications related to the following factors: 1) Pre-task planning, 2) within-task planning, 3) task repetition, 4) task design, 5) formulaic sequences, 6) learner strategies, 7) form instruction, and 8) error correction. The work concludes with a consideration of issues within the literature and a brief summary of pedagogical implications. / text

Cette recherche s’intéresse au langage préfabriqué (LP) dans le discours oral spontané d’apprenants de français langue étrangère (FLE). Le LP, étudié en linguistique sous l’angle du figement et de la conventionalité, intéresse aussi les psycholinguistes. Omniprésent dans le discours des locuteurs natifs, il sous-entend que la maîtrise d’une langue ne passe pas seulement par l’application des règles grammaticales et la création des phrases mais également par la mémorisation et l’automatisation des bouts de langue préconstruits. Notre objectif est double : étudier l’évolution de la connaissance du LP chez des apprenants du FLE et, le rôle que le LP joue dans leur fluidité verbale. Dix-sept apprenants ont réalisé à six mois d’intervalle deux tâches narratives orales, et leurs productions ont été enregistrées et transcrites deux fois. Six locuteurs natifs ont été soumis aux mêmes tâches une fois. Le LP a été identifié selon des critères linguistiques et psycholinguistiques. La fluence des productions a été évaluée au moyen de quatre mesures. Elle a été mise en relation avec l’emploi effectif des séquences préfabriquées afin de vérifier en quel sens ces dernières améliorent le discours oral des apprenants. Ainsi, il existe des différences individuelles très marquées entres les sujets testés et il est difficile de tirer des conclusions d’ordre général. Cependant, les apprenants de niveau débutant progressent dans l’emploi qu’ils font du LP, en quantité et en qualité. Ils peuvent s’appuyer sur les SP pour produire un discours plus fluide. Elles améliorent le segment de parole (longueur et complexification) et servent de stratégies (compensation, structuration et planification). / This thesis focuses on formulaic language in French as a Second Language (FSL) learners’ spontaneous spoken narratives. Formulaic language is made of multi-word units which are often perceived and used as simple lexical units. ESL studies have shown that even at advanced levels the command of formulaic language can be poor. The purpose of this thesis is twofold. First we intend to examine the evolution of formulaic language among FSL learners, and then the importance of formulaic language in learners’ fluency. Seventeen learners divided into three levels were asked over a period of six months to produce two oral narratives based on a cartoon and a silent film. Their narratives were recorded and transcribed as time 1 and time 2. The formulaic language which was found in the oral productions was identified according to linguistic and psycholinguistic criteria : phonological coherence, syntactic complexity, semantic opacity, frequence and systematicity of idiosyncratic errors and deviant items. The fluency was evaluated by means of four “classical” measurements : speech rate, length of run, rate of articulation, phonation time. Our analyses show that there are individual differences among subjects and that it is difficult to draw comprehensive conclusions. Yet, the results show a steady improvement in formulaic language among beginners, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Indeed, learners can rely on formulaic sequences to gain fluency and this in different manners. Formulaic sequences improve the speech run by making it longer and more complex. They can be used as strategies of compensation and planification of speech.